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The '''particle model''' is a [[Scientific Theory|scientific theory]] that [[explain]]s the [[property|properties]] of [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s and [[gas]]es by suggesting that all [[matter ]] is made of [[particle]]s, and that those [[particle]]s behave differently in [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s and [[gas]]es. {| class="wikitable"|-|[[File:ParticleModelSolidLiquidGas.png|center|500px]]|-| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:center;" |A [[diagram]] showing the '''particle model''' for [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s and [[gas]]es.|}

: The '''particle model''' can [[explain]] [[State ChangesChange|changes of state]].: [[Scientific Evidence|Evidence]] of the '''particle model''' can be shown by pouring 50[[ml]] 50ml of [[pure]] [[water]] and 50[[ml]] 50ml of [[pure]] [[ethanol]] into a [[Measuring Cylinder|measuring cylinder]]. The [[solution]] is only 97[[ml]] 97ml because [[ethanol]] [[molecule]]s are bigger than [[water]] [[molecule]]s so the [[water]] [[molecule]]s fit between the [[ethanol]] [[molecule]]s like pouring 5050ml of sand and 50ml of marbles into the same container. It will not make 100ml.: [[Scientific Evidence|Evidence]] of the '''particle model''' can be shown by observing [[Brownian Motion]]. ==Key Stage 4=====Meaning===The '''particle model''' is a [[Scientific Theory|scientific theory]] that [[explain]]s the [[property|properties]] of [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s and [[gas]]es by suggesting that all [[matter]] is made of [[particle]]s, and that those [[particle]]s behave differently in [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s and [[gas]]es. ===About The Particle Model===: The '''particle model''' describes how the [[particle]]s that make a [[solid]], [[liquid]] or [[gas]] are arranged and how they move.: In the '''particle model''' the [[particle]]s are constantly moving and [[Collision|colliding]] with one another.: The [[particle]]s have [[Kinetic Energy|kinetic energy]] which is passed on to each other during [[collision]]s.{| class="wikitable"| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:center;" |'''Diagram'''| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:center;" |'''Arrangement'''| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:center;" |'''Motion'''|-|[[File:ParticleModelSolid.png|center|200px]]| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:center;" |In a [[solid]] the [[particle]]s are in a regular arrangement and very close together. This is the most [[mlDensity|dense]] [[State of Matter|state of sand matter]].| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:center;" |In a [[solid]] the [[particle]]s [[vibrate]] around fixed positions.|-|[[File:ParticleModelLiquid.png|center|200px]]| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:center;" |In a [[liquid]] the [[particle]]s are in a random arrangement with small gaps between them.| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:center;" |In a [[liquid]] the [[particle]]s can slide past one another.|-|[[File:ParticleModelGas.png|center|200px]]| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:center;" |In a [[gas]] the [[particle]]s are in a random arrangement and 50spread far apart from one another. This is the least [[mlDensity|dense]] [[State of Matter|state of marbles into matter]].| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:center;" |In a [[gas]] the same container[[particle]]s are free to move in all directions. It will |} ===Limitations of the Particle Model===: The '''particle model''' is not a complete explanation for the properties of a [[material]]. However, it is a useful approximation which can make predictions about the properties of [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s and [[gas]]es, that is not perfect.: The '''particle model''' only explains the properties of [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s and [[gas]]es but not why different [[material]]s are [[solid]], [[liquid]] or [[gas]] at different [[temperature]]s.The problems with the '''particle model''' are that it makes several assumptions which are not always the case:{| class="wikitable"| style="height:20px; width:100px; text-align:left;" |'''Assumption'''| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:left;" |'''Reality'''| style="height:20px; width:300px; text-align:left;" |'''Problem'''|-| style="height:20px; width:100px; text-align:left;" |[[Particle]]s are [[sphere]]s.| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:left;" |[[Particle]]s are often [[molecule]]s whose shape is not a [[sphere]], some of which are long chains of [[atom]]s.| style="height:20px; width:300px; text-align:left;" |: Differently shaped [[particle]]s fit together in different ways which can change the [[property|properties]] of [[solid]]s and [[liquid]]s such as the strength or [[viscosity]].|-| style="height:20px; width:100px; text-align:left;" |There are no [[force]]s between [[particle]]s.| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:left;" |There are [[force]]s between [[atom]]s and [[Intermolecular Force|intermolecular force]]s between [[molecule]]s. | style="height:20px; width:300px; text-align:left;" |: The [[magnitude]] of the different [[force]]s affects whether a [[substance]] is [[solid]], [[liquid]] or [[gas]] at different [[temperature]]s. The stronger the [[force]] the higher the [[temperature]] of its [[Melting Point|melting point]] and [[Boiling Point|boiling point]].: The direction of the [[Intermolecular Force|intermolecular forces]] affects the way the [[particle]]s are arranged in a [[solid]].|-| style="height:20px; width:100px; text-align:left;" |The size of all [[particle]]s in a [[substance]] is the same.| style="height:20px; width:200px; text-align:left;" |A [[substance]] can be made of more than one different [[particle]] which have different sizes.| style="height:20px; width:300px; text-align:left;" |: The different size [[particle]]s causes them to fit together in different arrangements in a [[solid]].|} ===Chemical Reactions in the Particle Model===: During a [[Chemical Reaction|chemical reaction]] [[atom]]s are rearranged into new [[compound]]s. The '''particle model''' explains how [[temperature]] and [[pressure]] affect the rate of [[Chemical Reaction|chemical reactions]].: In the '''particle model''' the [[particle]]s [[collide]] with one another.: If [[particle]]s [[collide]] with enough [[Kinetic Energy|kinetic energy]] it can break the [[Chemical Bond|chemical bond]]s holding the [[atom]]s to each other in a [[molecule]].: When [[collision]]s have caused [[molecule]]s to break apart they can join back together in a new arrangement. ====Temperature and Chemical Reactions====: When the [[temperature]] of a [[substance]] is increased it causes the [[particle]]s to move around faster, with greater [[Kinetic Energy|kinetic energy]].: As [[temperature]] increases the [[particle]]s [[collide]] more often and with greater [[Kinetic Energy|kinetic energy]].: When [[particle]]s [[collide]] more often it means a greater chance of the [[Chemical Bond|chemical bond]]s breaking and [[atom]]s rearranging into new [[compound]]s.: When [[particle]]s have a large [[Kinetic Energy|kinetic energy]] during a [[collision]] they are more likely to have enough [[energy]] to break the [[Chemical Bond|chemical bonds]] holding [[atom]]s in the [[molecule]]s together.====Pressure and Chemical Reactions====: When the [[pressure]] of a [[substance]] is increased it causes the [[particle]]s [[collide]] more often.: When [[particle]]s [[collide]] more often it means a greater chance of the [[Chemical Bond|chemical bond]]s breaking and [[atom]]s rearranging into new [[compound]]s. ===References=======AQA==== :[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1782945970/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=1782945970&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=a120d24dcc7cc7a58192069a3aafc1d2 ''Particle model, pages 106, 107, 113-115, GCSE Physics; The Complete 9-1 Course for AQA, CGP, AQA '']:[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/0198359381/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=0198359381&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=47c8d1ae58d8b3a5e2094cd447154558 ''Particle model, pages 36-37, GCSE Chemistry; Third Edition, Oxford University Press, AQA '']:[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/0008158762/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=0008158762&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=a0fffa35b3ea49a63404f6704e0df7cc ''Particle model, pages 68-9, GCSE Chemistry; Student Book, Collins, AQA '']:[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1782946403/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=1782946403&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=32a0abb60dff015b15b50e9b1d7b4644 ''Particle model, pages 96, 97, 103, 104, GCSE Combined Science Trilogy; Physics, CGP, AQA '']:[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/0008158770/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=0008158770&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=ec31595e720e1529e49876c3866fff6e ''Particle; model, pages 82-5, 89-90, 96, 98, 175, GCSE Physics; Student Book, Collins, AQA '']:[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1782945571/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=1782945571&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=9e29fad914244909903e5e93f8a01d201 ''Particle theory, pages 36, 37, GCSE Chemistry; The Revision Guide, CGP, AQA '']:[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/178294639X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=178294639X&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=51599bb45a2bfaf7c1b6a978b2ca2616 ''Particle theory, pages 97, 98, GCSE Combined Science Trilogy; Chemistry, CGP, AQA '']:[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1782945962/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=1782945962&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=476bb5c8d1dfb5c08ac81b6d4d1c98d8 ''Particle theory, pages 99, 100, GCSE Chemistry, CGP, AQA ''] ====Edexcel==== :[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1782945725/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=1782945725&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=694be7494de75af3349537d34e13f7f0 ''Particle model, pages 34, 35, GCSE Chemistry; The Revision Guide, CGP, Edexcel '']:[mlhttps://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1782948147/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=1782948147&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=f63dcd8345f4e49c717b39a228a36c7c ''Particle model, pages 95-98, GCSE Chemistry, CGP, Edexcel '']:[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1782945741/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=1782945741&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=30da4f2178da182547b62a7329d13b57 ''Particle model, pages 97, 98, GCSE Combined Science; The Revision Guide, CGP, Edexcel ''] ====OCR====:[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/0198359837/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=0198359837&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=3c4229e8b023b2b60768e7ea2307cc6f ''Particle model, pages 18-21, Gateway GCSE Physics, Oxford, OCR '']:[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/0198359829/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=0198359829&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=90e8d7b4f039d53035238fa0320fe00b ''Particle model, pages 18-23, 176-181, Gateway GCSE Chemistry, Oxford, OCR '']:[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1782945695/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=1782945695&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=ceafcc80bcad6b6754ee97a0c7ceea53 ''Particle model, pages 82, 107, 152, 155, Gateway GCSE Combined Science; The Revision Guide, CGP, OCR '']:[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1782945679/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=1782945679&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=a2db42f7b4bdf10cafaafa3bb9120940 ''Particle theory, pages 12, 34, Gateway GCSE Chemistry; The Revision Guide, CGP, OCR '']:[https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/1782945687/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1634&creative=6738&creativeASIN=1782945687&linkCode=as2&tag=nrjc-21&linkId=9a598e52189317a20311d7a632747bc9 ''Particle theory, pages 14, 17, 18, Gateway GCSE Physics; The Revision Guide, CGP, OCR ''] == Beyond the Curriculum == === The Quantum Realm === While the particle model is a fantastic way to understand the behavior of matter at macroscopic scales, there's a whole new world waiting to be explored at the quantum level. At this minuscule scale, particles exhibit bizarre behaviors that challenge our everyday intuition. ==== Quantum Particles ==== In the quantum realm, particles are nothing like the neat spheres we often imagine in the particle model. They can exist in multiple places at once (a phenomenon known as superposition), and their properties can be interconnected through a phenomenon called entanglement. These behaviors are fundamental to the field of quantum physics and have practical applications in technologies like quantum computing. ==== Wave-Particle Duality ==== One of the most mind-boggling concepts is wave-particle duality. Particles, such as electrons and photons, can exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties depending on how they are observed. This phenomenon challenges our understanding of the very nature of matter and is a cornerstone of quantum mechanics. === Subatomic Particles === In addition to the familiar protons, neutrons, and electrons, there's a whole zoo of subatomic particles out there. Some of these exotic particles, like quarks and neutrinos, play crucial roles in the fundamental forces that govern the universe. ==== Quarks - The Building Blocks ==== Quarks are the smallest known building blocks of matter. They combine in various ways to form protons, neutrons, and other particles. Understanding quarks and their interactions is a cutting-edge field in particle physics, delving deep into the structure of matter itself. ==== Neutrinos - Ghostly Particles ==== Neutrinos are fascinating because they interact very weakly with other matter. In fact, billions of neutrinos pass through your body every second without you even noticing. They are essential in astrophysics, helping us understand the inner workings of stars and supernovas. === Dark Matter and Dark Energy === As we explore the universe, we've discovered that ordinary matter, the kind made up of particles in the particle model, makes up only a small fraction of the cosmos. The majority of the universe is composed of mysterious substances known as dark matter and dark energy. ==== Dark Matter - The Invisible Force ==== Dark matter does not emit, absorb, or reflect light, making it completely invisible. Yet, its gravitational influence is unmistakable, holding galaxies together and shaping the cosmos. Understanding dark matter is a leading challenge in astrophysics. ==== Dark Energy - The Cosmic Accelerator ==== Dark energy is even more enigmatic. It's responsible for the accelerated expansion of the universe, a discovery that shook the world of physics. Its nature remains one of the greatest mysteries in modern science. === Particle Accelerators === To study particles at these tiny scales, scientists use colossal machines called particle accelerators. These devices can propel particles to near-light speeds, allowing us to recreate the extreme conditions of the early universe and discover new particles. ==== Large Hadron Collider (LHC) ==== The LHC, located beneath the Swiss-French border, is the most powerful particle accelerator on Earth. It played a pivotal role in the discovery of the Higgs boson, a particle that gives mass to other particles. Students with a passion for physics may dream of working on experiments like those conducted at the LHC. === The Unified Theory === Scientists are working tirelessly to create a unified theory that combines the laws of quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity. Such a theory would explain the behavior of particles on all scales, from the smallest quantum particles to the largest cosmic structures. It's a challenge that has intrigued physicists for generations. Remember, these topics are beyond the scope of your curriculum, but they represent the frontiers of scientific research. If you're passionate about physics and enjoy exploring the mysteries of the universe, these are exciting areas to delve into further during your academic journey.