Changes

{{mergefromUse dmy dates|Niche adaptationdate=February 2015}}{{chembox| Verifiedfields = changed| Watchedfields = changed| verifiedrevid = 477003420| Name = Calcium carbonate| ImageFileL1 = calcium carbonate.png| ImageFileR1 = Calcium-carbonate-xtal-3D-SF.png| ImageFile2 = Calcium carbonate.jpg| IUPACName = Calcium carbonate|discussOtherNames =Talk:Niche_adaptation[[calcite]]; [[aragonite]]; [[chalk]]; [[Lime (material)]]; [[Limestone]]; [[marble]]; [[oyster]]; [[pearl]]; |Section1={{Chembox Identifiers|dateUNII_Ref =July 2018{{fdacite|correct|FDA}}| UNII = H0G9379FGK| ChEMBL_Ref = {{Aboutebicite|changed|the evolutionary processEBI}}| ChEMBL = 1200539| KEGG_Ref = {{distinguishkeggcite|Adoptioncorrect|Acclimatizationkegg}}| KEGG = D00932| InChI = 1/CH2O3.Ca/c2-1(3)4;/h(H2,2,3,4);/q;+2/p-2| ChEBI_Ref = {{Evolutionary biologyebicite|correct|EBI}}In | ChEBI = 3311| SMILES = [Ca+2].[O-]C([O-])=O| InChIKey = VTYYLEPIZMXCLO-NUQVWONBAS| SMILES1 = C(=O)([biologyO-])[O-].[Ca+2]| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}| StdInChI = 1S/CH2O3.Ca/c2-1(3)4;/h(H2, '''adaptation''' has three related meanings2,3,4);/q;+2/p-2| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}| StdInChIKey = VTYYLEPIZMXCLO-UHFFFAOYSA-L| CASNo = 471-34-1| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}| ChemSpiderID = 9708| EINECS = 207-439-9| PubChem = 10112| RTECS = FF9335000}}|Section2={{Chembox Properties| Formula = CaCO₃| MolarMass = 100. Firstly, it is the dynamic evolutionary process that fits 0869 g/mol| Appearance = Fine white powder; chalky taste| Odor = odorless| Density = 2.711 g/cm³ ([[organismcalcite]]s to their environment, enhancing their )<br />2.83 g/cm³ ([[Fitness aragonite]])| Solubility = 0.013 g/L (biology25 °C)<ref>{{cite book|evolutionary fitness]]title=SI Chemical Data Book (4th ed.) |publisher=John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd. Secondly|author1=Aylward, Gordon |author2=Findlay, it is a state reached by Tristan |isbn=978-0-470-81638-7|year=2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Calcium Carbonate: From the population during that processCretaceous Period Into the 21st Century|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pbkKGa19k5QC&pg=RA1-PR2|author=Rohleder, J. |author2=Kroker, E. |isbn=3-7643-6425-4}}</ref>| SolubilityProduct = 3.3{{e|-9}}<ref>{{cite book|last =Benjamin|first=Mark M.|year=2002|title=Water Chemistry |publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn =0-07-238390-9|url=https://books.google. Thirdlycom/?id=67anQgAACAAJ}}</ref>| Solvent = dilute acids| SolubleOther = soluble| MeltingPt = 1, it is a 339 °C (2,442 °F; 1,612 K) (calcite) <br> 825 °C (1517 °F; 1,098 K) (aragonite) <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/81-123/pdfs/0090.pdf|title=Occupational safety and health guideline for calcium carbonate|publisher=US Dept. of Health and Human Services|accessdate=31 March 2011}}</ref>| BoilingPt = decomposes| RefractIndex = 1.59| pKa = 9.0| pKb =| MagSus = -38.2·10⁻⁶ cm³/mol}}|Section3={{Chembox Structure| CrystalStruct = Trigonal| SpaceGroup = <span style="text-decoration: overline">3</span>2/m}}|Section5={{Chembox Thermochemistry| DeltaHf = −1207&nbsp;kJ·mol⁻¹<ref name=b1>{{cite book| author = Zumdahl, Steven S.|title =Chemical Principles 6th Ed.| publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company| year = 2009| isbn = 0-618-94690-X|page=A21}}</ref>| Entropy = 93&nbsp;J·mol⁻¹·K⁻¹<ref name=b1 /> }}|Section6={{Chembox Pharmacology| ATCCode_prefix = A02| ATCCode_suffix = AC01| ATC_Supplemental = {{ATC|A12|AA04}}}}|Section7={{Chembox Hazards| ExternalSDS = [http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1193.htm ICSC 1193]| MainHazards =| NFPA-H = 0| NFPA-F = 0| NFPA-R = 0| NFPA-S =| RPhrases =| SPhrases =| LD50 = 6450 mg/kg (oral, rat)| PEL = TWA 15 mg/m³ (total) TWA 5 mg/m³ (resp)<ref>{{PGCH|0090}}</ref>}}|Section8={{Chembox Related| OtherAnions = [[phenotypic traitCalcium bicarbonate]]|phenotypicOtherCations = [[Magnesium carbonate]] or '''adaptive trait''', with a functional role in each individual organism, that is maintained and has been <br />[[Strontium carbonate]]<br />[[evolutionBarium carbonate]]|evolvedOtherCompounds = [[Calcium sulfate]] by }}}}[[natural selectionFile:Calcite.png|thumb|right|Crystal structure of calcite]].

Organisms face '''Calcium carbonate''' is a succession of environmental challenges [[chemical compound]] with the [[Chemical formula|formula]] [[Calcium|Ca]][[Carbon|C]][[Oxygen|O]]₃. It is a common substance found in [[Rock (geology)|rocks]] as the [[mineral]]s [[calcite]] and [[aragonite]] (most notably as they grow[[limestone]], which is a type of sedimentary rock build mainly of calcite) and show adaptive is the main component of [[Phenotypic plasticitypearl]]s and the [[Seashell|plasticityshells of marine organisms]], [[snail] as traits ]s, and eggs. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in [[ontogeny|developagricultural lime]] and is created when calcium ions in response [[hard water]] react with [[carbonate ion]]s to the imposed conditionscreate [[limescale]]. This gives them resilience to varying environmentsIt is medicinally used as a [[calcium]] supplement or as an [[antacid]], but excessive consumption can be hazardous.

==History Chemistry=={{Main|History Calcium carbonate shares the typical properties of evolutionary thought}}other carbonates. Notably,* it reacts with [[acid]]s, releasing [[carbon dioxide]]::CaCO₃(s) + 2H⁺(aq) → Ca²⁺(aq) + CO₂(g) + H₂O (l)* it releases carbon dioxide upon heating, called a [[thermal decomposition]] reaction, or [[calcination]] (to above 840&nbsp;°C in the case of CaCO₃), to form [[calcium oxide]], commonly called [[quicklime]], with reaction [[enthalpy]] 178 kJ/mole::CaCO₃ (s) → CaO (s) + CO₂ (g)

Adaptation Calcium carbonate will react with water that is an observable fact of life accepted by philosophers and natural historians from ancient times, independently of their views on saturated with carbon dioxide to form the soluble [[evolutioncalcium bicarbonate]], but their explanations differed. [[Empedocles]] did not believe that adaptation required a [[final cause]] :CaCO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O → Ca(~ purposeHCO₃), but thought that it "came about naturally, since such things survived." [[Aristotle]] did believe in final causes, but assumed that [[Aristotle's biology#Scale of being|species were fixed]].<refsub>{{cite book |authorlink=Armand Marie Leroi |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |titlelink=Aristotle's Lagoon |publisher=Bloomsbury |date=2015 |isbn=978-1408836224 |pages=91–92, 273, 288}}2</refsub>

[[File:Lamarck's Two-Factor Theory.svg|thumb|upright=1.7|The second of [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]]'s two factors (This reaction is important in the first being a complexifying force) was an adaptive force that causes animals with a given [[body planerosion]] to adapt to circumstances by of [[inheritance of acquired characteristicscarbonate rock]], creating a diversity of forming [[speciescavern]] s, and leads to [[genus|generahard water]]in many regions.]]

In [[natural theology]], adaptation was interpreted as the work An unusual form of a deity and as evidence for calcium carbonate is the existence of God.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|1989|pp=31–32hexahydrate, fn 18}}</ref> [[William Paley]] believed that organisms were perfectly adapted to the lives they led, an argument that shadowed [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnizikaite]], who had argued that God had brought about "[[best of all possible worlds|the best of all possible worlds]]." [[Voltaire]]'s Dr. PanglossCaCO<refsub>{{cite book |author=Voltaire |title=Candide |publisher=Cramer et al |date=1759}}3</refsub> is a parody of this optimistic idea, and [[David Hume]] also argued against design.·6H<refsub>{{harvnb|Sober|1993|loc=chpt. 2}}</refsub> The ''[[Natural theology#The Bridgewater Treatises|Bridgewater Treatises]]'' are a product of natural theology, though some of the authors managed to present their work in a fairly neutral mannerO. The series was lampooned by [[Robert Knox]], who held quasi-evolutionary views, as the ''Bilgewater Treatises''. [[Charles Darwin]] broke with the tradition by emphasising the flaws and limitations which occurred in the animal and plant worldsIkaite is stable only below 6&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1872|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=425&itemID=F391&viewtype=side 397: "Rudimentary, Atrophied, and Aborted Organs"]}}</ref>

[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] proposed a tendency for organisms to become more complex, moving up a ladder of progress, plus "the influence of circumstances," usually expressed as ''use and disuse''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bowler |first1=Peter J. |titlePreparation==Evolution The History vast majority of an Idea|date=1989 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-06386-4 |page=86 |edition=Revised |origyear=1983}}</ref> This second, subsidiary element of his theory calcium carbonate used in industry is what is now called [[Lamarckism]]extracted by mining or quarrying. Pure calcium carbonate (e.g. for food or pharmaceutical use), can be produced from a proto-evolutionary hypothesis of the pure quarried source (usually [[inheritance of acquired characteristicsmarble]], intended to explain adaptations by natural means).<ref>See, for example, the discussion in {{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=86–95}}: "Whatever the true nature of Lamarck's theory, it was his mechanism of adaptation that caught the attention of later naturalists." (p. 90)</ref>

Other natural historiansAlternatively, such as calcium carbonate is prepared from [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Buffoncalcium oxide]], accepted adaptation, and some also accepted evolution, without voicing their opinions as . Water is added to the mechanism. This illustrates the real merit of Darwin and give [[Alfred Russel Wallacecalcium hydroxide]], and secondary figures such as then [[Henry Walter Batescarbon dioxide]]is passed through this solution to precipitate the desired calcium carbonate, for putting forward a mechanism whose significance had only been glimpsed previously. A century later, experimental field studies and breeding experiments by people such referred to in the industry as [[E. B. Ford]] and [[Theodosius Dobzhansky]] produced [[Evidence of common descent|evidence that natural selection]] was not only the 'engine' behind adaptation, but was a much stronger force than had previously been thought.<ref name="Provine 1986">{{harvnb|Provine|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ford|1975}}</ref>precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC):<ref name="Orr_2005PCC">{{cite journal web|lasttitle =Orr Precipitated Calcium Carbonate |firstaccessdate =H. Allen 11 January 2014|authorlinkurl =Hhttp://www. Allen Orr |date=February 2005 |title=The genetic theory of adaptation: a brief history |journal=[[Nature Reviews Genetics]] |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=119–127 |doi=10lime.1038org/nrg1523 |pmid=15716908uses_of_lime/other_uses/precip_cc.asp}}</ref>

==Structure==The thermodynamically stable form of CaCO₃ under normal conditions is hexagonal β-CaCO₃, (the mineral [[calcite]]).<ref name ="Ropp">{{Quotationcite book|''The significance last=R C Ropp Elsevier|title=Encyclopedia of an adaptation the alkaline earth compounds|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=9780444595508|pages=359–370}}</ref> Other forms can only be understood in relation to prepared, the total biology of denser,(2.83 g/cc) orthorhombic λ-CaCO₃ ( the species.''|mineral [[Julian Huxleyaragonite]]|'') and μ-CaCO₃, occurring as the mineral [[Evolution: The Modern Synthesisvaterite]]''.<ref name ="Ropp"/> The aragonite form can be prepared by precipitation at temperatures above 85&nbsp;°C, the vaterite form can be prepared by precipitation at 60&nbsp;°C.<ref name ="Ropp"/> Calcite contains calcium atoms coordinated by 6 oxygen atoms, in aragonite they are coordinated by 9 oxygen atoms.<refname ="Ropp"/> The vaterite structure is not fully understood.<ref name="DemichelisRaiteri2013">{{harvnbcite journal|last1=Demichelis|first1=Raffaella|last2=Raiteri|first2=Paolo|last3=Gale|first3=Julian D.|last4=Dovesi|first4=Roberto|title=The Multiple Structures of Vaterite|journal=Crystal Growth & Design|volume=13|Huxleyissue=6|1942year=2013|ppages=4492247–2251|issn=1528-7483|doi=10.1021/cg4002972}}</ref>}}Magnesium carbonate MgCO₃ has the calcite structure, whereas strontium and barium carbonate (SrCO₃ and BaCO₃) adopt the aragonite structure, reflecting their larger ionic radii.<ref name ="Ropp"/>

==Occurrence=What adaptation is===Adaptation is primarily a process rather than a physical form or part of a body.<ref>{{harvnb|Mayr|1982|p=483}}: "Adaptation... could no longer be considered a static condition, a product of a creative past, and became instead a continuing dynamic process."</ref> An internal [[parasite]] (such as a [[liver fluke]]) can illustrate the distinction: such a parasite may have a very simple bodily structure, but nevertheless the organism is highly adapted to its specific environment. From this we see that adaptation is not just a matter of visible traits: in such parasites critical adaptations take place in the [[biological life cycle|life cycle]], which is often quite complex.<ref>{{harvnb |Price |1980}}</ref> However, as a practical term, "adaptation" often refers to a ''product'': those features of a [[species]] which result from the process. Many aspects of an animal or plant can be correctly called adaptations, though there are always some features whose function remains in doubt. By using the term ''adaptation'' for the evolutionary ''process'', and ''adaptive trait'' for the bodily part or function (the product), one may distinguish the two different senses of the word.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor1-last=Daintith |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=Martin |editor2-first=Elizabeth A. |encyclopedia=A Dictionary of Science |title=adaptation |origyear=First published 1984 as ''Concise Science Dictionary'' |edition=6th |year=2010 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |series=Oxford Paperback Reference |isbn=978-0-19-956146-9 |lccn=2010287468 |oclc=444383696 |page=13 |quote=Any change in the structure or functioning of successive generations of a population that makes it better suited to its environment.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb |Bowler |2003 |p=10}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb |Patterson |1999 |p=1}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb |Williams |1966 |p=5}}: "Evolutionary adaptation is a phenomenon of pervasive importance in biology."</ref>

Adaptation is one of the two main processes that explain the observed diversity of species, such as the different species of [[Darwin's finches]]. The other process is [[speciation]], in which new species arise, typically through [[reproductive isolation]].<ref>{{harvnb |Mayr |1963}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb |Mayr |1982 |pp=562–566}}</ref> A favourite example used today to study the interplay of adaptation and speciation is the evolution of [[cichlid]] [[fish]] in African lakes, where the question of reproductive isolation is complex.<ref name="Salzburger">{{cite journal |last1=Salzburger |first1=Walter |last2=Mack |first2=Tanja |last3=Verheyen |first3=Erik |last4=Meyer |first4=Axel |authorlink4=Axel Meyer |date=February 21, 2005 |title=Out of Tanganyika: Genesis, explosive speciation, key-innovations and phylogeography of the haplochromine cichlid fishes |url=httpFile://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1471-2148-5-17.pdf |journal=[[BMC Evolutionary Biology]] |location=London |publisher=[[BioMed Central]] |volume=5 |number=17 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-5-17 |pmc=554777 |pmid=15723698 |accessdate=2015-08-15}}</ref><ref name="Kornfield">{{cite journal |last1=Kornfield |first1=Irv |last2=Smith |first2=Peter FCalcium carbonate chunks. JPG|date=November 2000 thumb|title=African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology |journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |Annual Review of Ecology and SystematicsCalcium carbonate chunks from clamshell]] |volume=31 |pages=163–196 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.163}}</ref>

Adaptation is not always a simple matter where the ideal phenotype evolves for a given external environment. An organism must be viable at all stages of its development and at all stages of its evolution. This places ''constraints'' on the evolution of development, behaviour===Geological sources===[[Calcite]], [[aragonite]] and structure of organisms[[vaterite]] are pure calcium carbonate minerals. The main constraint, over Industrially important source rocks which there has been much debate, is the requirement that each are predominantly calcium carbonate include [[Genetics |geneticlimestone]] and phenotypic change during evolution should be relatively small, because developmental systems are so complex and interlinked. However, it is not clear what "relatively small" should mean, for example [[polyploidchalk]]y in plants is a reasonably common large genetic change.<ref>{{harvnb|Stebbins|1950|loc=chs. 8 and 9}}</ref> The origin of , [[eukaryote|eukaryoticmarble]] and [[endosymbiosistravertine]] is a more dramatic example.<ref>{{harvnb|Margulis|Fester|1991}}</ref>

All adaptations help organisms survive in their [[ecological niche]]sFile:Silfurberg.<ref>{{harvnbjpg|Hutchinsonthumb|1965}}. The niche Calcite is the central concept in evolutionary ecology; see especially part II: "The niche: an abstractly inhabited hypervolumemost stable polymorph of calcium carbonate." (ppIt is transparent to opaque. 26–78)</ref> The adaptive traits may be structural, behavioural or A transparent variety called [[Physiology|physiologicalIceland spar]]. Structural adaptations are physical features of an organism, such as shape, body covering, armament, and [[comparative anatomy |internal organization]]. [[Ethology|Behavioural]] adaptations are inherited systems of behaviour, whether inherited in detail as [[instinct]]s, or as a [[neuropsychology|neuropsychological]] capacity (shown here) is used for [[learning]]optical purposes. Examples include [[Foraging {{clarify|searching for food]], [[mating]], and [[Animal communication |vocalizations]]. Physiological adaptations permit the organism to perform special functions such as making [[venom]], secreting [[Snail slime |slime]], and [[phototropism]]), but also involve more general functions such as [[developmental biology |growth and development]], [[Thermoregulation |temperature regulation]], [[ions |ionicdate=January 2018}}]] balance and other aspects of [[homeostasis]]. Adaptation affects all aspects of the life of an organism.

The following definitions ===Biological sources===Eggshells, snail shells and most seashells are given by the evolutionary biologist [[Theodosius Dobzhansky]]::1. ''Adaptation'' is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its [[habitat]] or habitatspredominantly calcium carbonate and can be used as industrial sources of that chemical.<ref name="Dobzhansky T 1968">{{harvnb |Dobzhansky |1968 |pp=1–34}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wang |first1=G web |title=Analysis of Complex Diseases: A Mathematical Perspective How are seashells created? |publisherauthor=Taylor Horne, Francis |yeardate=2014 |chapter=Chapter 5.6—Zero Order Adaptivity 23 October 2006 |pageswork=69 Scientific American |isbnaccessdate=9781466572232 25 April 2012 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=DmDSBQAAQBAJ |page=69}}how-are-seashells-created}}</ref>Oyster shells have enjoyed recent recognition as a source of dietary calcium, but are also a practical industrial source.<ref>{{cite book web |titleurl=Climate Change Impact on Livestockhttp: Adaptation and Mitigation |publisher=Springer |editor1-last=Sejian |editor1-first=V//www. |editor2-last=Gaughan |editor2-first=Jwebmd. |editor3com/drugs/drug-last=Baumgard |editor316642-first=LNatural+Oyster+Shell+Calcium+Oral. |editor4-lastaspx?drugid=Prasad |editor4-first16642&drugname=C. Natural+Oyster+Shell+Calcium+Oral|yeartitle=2015 WebMD: Oyster shell calcium |pages=515 |isbn=9788132222651 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |idpublisher=D-G9BwAAQBAJ WebMD|pageaccessdate=515}}25 April 2012}}</ref>:2. ''Adaptedness'' is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.<ref>{{harvnb cite web |Dobzhansky title=Oyster Shell Calcium Carbonate|1970 publisher=Caltron Clays &amp Chemicals|ppurl=4–6; 79–82http://caltronclays.in/Oyster_CC.html}}</ref>:3. An ''adaptive trait'' is Dark green vegetables such as broccoli and kale contain dietarily significant amounts of calcium carbonate, however, they are not practical as an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducingindustrial source.<ref>{{cite journal |lastyear=1993 |title=Absorbability of Calcium from Brassica Vegetables: Broccoli, Bok Choy, and Kale |journal=Dobzhansky Journal of Food Science |firstvolume=Theodosius 58 |authorlinkissue=Theodosius Dobzhansky 6 |datepages=March 1956 1378–1380|titledoi=Genetics of Natural Populations10.1111/j.1365-2621.1993. XXVtb06187. Genetic Changes in Populations of ''Drosophila pseudoobscura'' and ''Drosophila persimilis'' in Some Localities in California x|last1=Heaney|journalfirst1=[[Evolution (journal) R.P.|Evolution]] last2=Weaver|publisherfirst2=[[John Wiley & Sons]] for the [[Society for the Study of Evolution]] C.M.|volumelast3=10 Hinders|issuefirst3=1 SM.|pageslast4=82–92 Martin|doifirst4=10B.2307/2406099 |jstorlast5=Packard|first5=2406099P.T.}}</ref>

===What adaptation is notExtraterrestrial===Beyond Earth, strong evidence suggests the presence of calcium carbonate on [[File:Tampering_W_Nature_GuacharacasMars]].jpg|right|thumb|Some Signs of calcium carbonate have been detected at more than one location (notably at [[Generalist and specialist speciesGusev crater|generalistsGusev]], such as and [[birdHuygens (crater)|Huygens]]scraters). This provides some evidence for the past presence of liquid water.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Boynton |first1=WV| last2=Ming |first2=DW| last3=Kounaves |first3=SP| last4=Young |first4=SM| last5=Arvidson |first5=RE| last6=Hecht |first6=MH| last7=Hoffman |first7=J| last8=Niles |first8=PB| last9=Hamara |first9=DK| last10=Quinn| first10=R. C.| last11=Smith| first11=P. H.| last12=Sutter| first12=B| last13=Catling| first13=D. C.| last14=Morris| first14=R. V.| title=Evidence for Calcium Carbonate at the Mars Phoenix Landing Site| url=http://planetary.chem.tufts.edu/Boynton%20etal%20Science%202009v325p61.pdf| journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5936 |pages= 61–64| year=2009 |pmid=19574384 |bibcode=2009Sci...325...61B| display-authors=3| doi=10.1126/science.1172768| doi-broken-date=2017-01-31 }}</ref><ref name=Clark2007>{{cite journal| author1=Clark| year=2007| title=Evidence for montmorillonite or its compositional equivalent in Columbia Hills, have the flexibility to adapt to Mars| journal=[[urban areaJournal of Geophysical Research]]s| volume=112 |pages=E06S01| doi=10.1029/2006JE002756| last2=Arvidson| first2=R. E.| last3=Gellert| first3=R.| last4=Morris| first4=R. V.| last5=Ming| first5=D. W.| last6=Richter| first6=L.| last7=Ruff| first7=S. W.]]| last8=Michalski| first8=J. R.| last9=Farrand| first9=W. H.| last10=Yen| first10=A.| last11=Herkenhoff| first11=K. E.| last12=Li| first12=R.| last13=Squyres| first13=S. W.| last14=Schröder| first14=C.| last15=Klingelhöfer| first15=G.| last16=Bell| first16=J. F.| bibcode = 2007JGRE..112.6S01C| displayauthors=3 | url=http://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/17119/1/Clark2007_Evidence_for_montmorillonite_or_its_compositional_equivalent_in_Columbia_Hills_Mars.pdf}}</ref>

Adaptation differs from flexibility==Geology==Carbonate is found frequently in geologic settings and constitutes an enormous [[carbon cycle|carbon reservoir]]. Calcium carbonate occurs as [[aragonite]], [[acclimatizationcalcite]], and [[learningdolomite]]. Flexibility deals with The [[carbonate mineral]]s form the relative capacity of an organism to maintain itself in different habitatsrock types: its degree of [[Generalist and specialist species|specializationlimestone]], [[chalk]], [[marble]], [[travertine]]. Acclimatization describes automatic , [[physiology|physiologicaltufa]] adjustments during life;<ref name="Rymer2013">{{cite journal | last=Rymer | first=Tasmin | last2=Pillay | first2=Neville | last3=Schradin | first3=Carsten | title=Extinction or Survival? Behavioral Flexibility in Response to Environmental Change in the African Striped Mouse Rhabdomys | journal=Sustainability | volume=5 | issue=1 | date=2013 | doi=10.3390/su5010163 | pages=163–186}}</ref> learning means improvement in behavioral performance during life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gross |first=Richard |title=Psychology: The Science of Mind , and Behaviour |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cle1Fcr_6_QC&pg=PT335 |year=2012 |publisher=Hodder |isbn=978-1-4441-6436-7 |page=335}}</ref> These terms are preferred to adaptation for changes during life which are not inherited by the next generationothers.

Flexibility stems from In warm, clear tropical waters [[phenotypic plasticitycoral]]s are more abundant than towards the poles where the waters are cold. Calcium carbonate contributors, the ability of an organism with a given including [[genotypeplankton]] to change its (such as [[phenotypecoccolith]] in response to changes in its s and planktic [[habitatforaminifera]]), or to move to a different habitat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Price |first1=Trevor D. |last2=Qvarnström |first2=Anna |last3=Irwin |first3=Darren E. |date=July 2003 |title=The role of phenotypic plasticity in driving genetic evolution |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society#Proceedings of the Royal Society B|Proceedings of the Royal Society Bcoralline algae]] |volume=270 |issue=1523 |pages=1433–1440 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2003.2372 |pmc=1691402 |pmid=12965006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Price |first=Trevor D. |date=June 2006 |title=Phenotypic plasticity, sexual selection and the evolution of colour patterns |journal=[[The Journal of Experimental Biologysea sponge|sponges]] |volume=209 |issue=12 |pages=2368–2376 |doi=10.1242/jeb.02183 |pmid=16731813}}</ref> The degree of flexibility is inherited, and varies between individuals. A highly specialized animal or plant lives only in a well-defined habitat, eats a specific type of food, and cannot survive if its needs are not met. Many [[herbivorebrachiopod]]s are like this; extreme examples are , [[koalaechinoderm]]s which depend on '', [[Eucalyptusbryozoa]]'', and [[giant panda]]s which require [[bambooMollusc shell|mollusks]]. A generalist, on the other hand, eats a range of are typically found in shallow water environments where sunlight and filterable food, and can survive in many different conditions. Examples are humans, [[rat]]s, [[crab]]s and many carnivoresmore abundant. The ''tendency'' to behave in Cold-water carbonates do exist at higher latitudes but have a specialized or exploratory manner is inherited—it is an adaptationvery slow growth rate. Rather different is developmental flexibility: "An animal or plant is developmentally flexible if when it is raised in or transferred to new conditions, it changes in structure so that it is better fitted to survive in the new environment," writes The [[evolutionary biology|evolutionary biologistcalcification]] processes are changed by [[John Maynard Smithocean acidification]].<ref>{{harvnb|Maynard Smith|1993|p=33}}</ref>

If humans move to a higher altitude, respiration and physical exertion become a problem, but after spending time in high altitude conditions they acclimatize to Where the reduced partial pressure of oxygen, such as by producing more [[red blood celloceanic crust]]s. The ability to acclimatize is an adaptation, but the acclimatization itself is not. Fecundity goes [[Subduction|subducted]] under a [[continental plate]] sediments will be carried down, but deaths from some tropical diseases also go down. Over a longer period of time, some people are better able to reproduce at high altitudes than otherswarmer zones in the [[asthenosphere]] and [[lithosphere]]. They contribute more heavily Under these conditions calcium carbonate decomposes to later generationsproduce [[carbon dioxide]] which, and gradually by natural selection the whole population becomes adapted to the new conditions. This has demonstrably occurredalong with other gases, as the observed performance of long-term communities at higher altitude is significantly better than the performance of new arrivals, even when the new arrivals have had time to acclimatize.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moore |first1=Lorna G. |last2=Regensteiner |first2=Judith G. |date=October 1983 |title=Adaptation give rise to High Altitude |journal=explosive [[Annual Review of Anthropologyvolcano|volcanic eruptions]] |volume=12 |pages=285–304 |doi=10.1146/annurev.an.12.100183.001441}}</ref>

===Adaptedness and fitness Carbonate compensation depth===The [[File:fitness-landscape-cartoon.png|thumb|In this sketch of a [[fitness landscapecarbonate compensation depth]], a population can evolve (CCD) is the point in the ocean where the rate of precipitation of calcium carbonate is balanced by following the arrows rate of dissolution due to the adaptive peak at point Bconditions present. Deep in the ocean, the temperature drops and pressure increases. Calcium carbonate is unusual in that its solubility increases with decreasing temperature. Increasing pressure also increases the points A and C are local optima where a population could become trappedsolubility of calcium carbonate. The carbonate compensation depth can range from 4–6&nbsp;km below sea level.]]{{Main|Fitness (biology)|Fitness landscape}}

There is a relationship between adaptedness and the concept of fitness used ===Role in taphonomy===Calcium carbonate can [[population geneticstaphonomy|preserve fossils]]. Differences in fitness between through [[genotypepermineralization]]s predict . Most of the rate vertebrate fossils of evolution the [[Two Medicine Formation]]—a [[geologic formation]] known for its [[duck-billed dinosaur]] eggs—are preserved by natural selectionCaCO₃ permineralization. Natural selection changes <ref name="twoturn" /> This type of preservation conserves high levels of detail, even down to the relative frequencies of alternative phenotypesmicroscopic level. However, insofar as they are it also leaves specimens vulnerable to [[Heritability|heritableweathering]]when exposed to the surface.<ref name="Endler 33twoturn">{{harvnb|Endler|1986|pp=Trexler, D. (2001) [https://books.google.com/books?id=MYk1XbelDssC&lpg=PA27mgc6CS4EUPsC&pg=PA33#v=onepage&q&f=false 33–51PA98 "Two Medicine Formation, Montana: geology and fauna"]}}</ref> However, a phenotype with high adaptedness may not have high fitnesspp. 298–309 in ''Mesozoic Vertebrate Life'', Tanke, D. H. Dobzhansky mentioned the example of the [[Sequoia sempervirens|Californian redwood]], which is highly adaptedand Carpenter, but a [[Relict K. (biologyeds)|relict]] species in danger of [[extinction]].<ref name="Dobzhansky T 1968" /> [[Elliott Sober]] commented that adaptation was a retrospective concept since it implied something about the history of a trait, whereas fitness predicts a trait's futureIndiana University Press.<ref name="Sober2">{{harvnb|Sober|1984ISBN|p=2100-253-33907-3}}</ref>

:1. Relative fitness. The average contribution to the next generation by a genotype or a class of genotypes, relative to the contributions of other genotypes in the population.<ref name="Futuyma_Evolution">{{harvnb|Futuyma|1986|p=552}}</ref> This is also known as ''Darwinian fitness'', ''[[selection coefficientTrilobite]]'', and other terms.:2. Absolute fitness. The absolute contribution populations were once thought to have composed the next generation by a genotype or a class majority of genotypes. Also known as aquatic life during the [[Malthusian growth model|Malthusian parameterCambrian]] when applied , due to the population as a whole.<ref name="Endler 33" />fact that their calcium carbonate-rich shells were more easily preserved than those of other species,<ref>{{harvnb|FisherCite book|1930|purl=25}}<https://ref>:3www. Adaptednessnap. The extent to which a phenotype fits its local ecological niche. Researchers can sometimes test this through a [[Transplant experimentedu/catalog/11630/out-of-thin-air-dinosaurs-birds-and-earths-ancient-atmosphere|reciprocal transplant]].<ref>{{cite journal title=Out of Thin Air: Dinosaurs, Birds, and Earth's Ancient Atmosphere| last=de Villemereuil Ward| first=P. Peter| last2date=Gaggiotti | first2publisher=O. E. | last3year=Mouterde | first3isbn=M. 9780309666121| last4location=Till-Bottraud | first4pages=I | titlelanguage=Common garden experiments in the genomic era: new perspectives and opportunities | journal=Heredity | volume=116 | issue=3 | date=2015-10-21 en| doi=10.103817226/hdy.2015.93 | pages=249–254| pmc=4806574 11630}}</ref>which had purely chitinous shells.

[[Sewall Wright]] proposed that populations occupy ''adaptive peaks'' on a fitness landscape. To evolve to another, higher peak, a population would first have to pass through a valley of maladaptive intermediate stages, and might be "trapped" on a peak that is not optimally adapted.<ref>{{harvnb|Wright|1932|pp=[http://www.esp.org/books/6th-congress/facsimile/contents/6th-cong-p356-wright.pdf 356–366]}}</ref>=Uses==

===Genetic basisIndustrial applications===A large diversity of genome [[DNA]]s in a species is the basis for adaptation and differentiation. A large population is needed to carry sufficient diversity. According to the misrepair-accumulation aging theory,<ref>{{cite arXiv |last1=Wang |first1=Jicun |last2=Michelitsch |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Wunderlin |first3=Arne |last4=Mahadeva |first4=Ravi |eprint=0904.0575 |title=Aging as a consequence of misrepair—A novel theory of aging |class=q-bio.TO |year=2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv |last1=Wang-Michelitsch |first1=Jicun |last2=Michelitsch |first2=Thomas M. |eprint=1503.07163 |title=Aging as a process of accumulation of misrepairs |class=q-bio.TO |year=2015}}</ref> The misrepair mechanism is important in maintaining a sufficient number of individuals in a species.<ref>{{cite arXiv |last1=Wang-Michelitsch |first1=Jicun |last2=Michelitsch |first2=Thomas M. |eprint=1505.03900 |title=Misrepair mechanism: a mechanism essential for individual adaptation, species adaptation and species evolution |class=q-bio.TO |year=2015}}</ref> misrepair is a way of repair for increasing the surviving chance of an organism when it has severe injuries. Without misrepairs, no individual could survive to reproduction age. Thus misrepair mechanism is an essential mechanism for the survival of a species and for maintaining the number of individuals. Although individuals die from aging, genome DNAs are being recopied and transmitted by individuals generation by generation. In addition, the DNA misrepairs in germ cells contribute also to the diversity of genome DNAs.

==Types=={{Quotation|''Adaptation The main use of calcium carbonate is in the construction industry, either as a building material or limestone aggregate for road building or as an ingredient of cement or as the starting material for the heart and soul preparation of evolutionbuilder's lime by burning in a kiln.''|However, because of weathering mainly caused by [[Niles Eldredgeacid rain]]|Reinventing Darwin: The Great Debate at the High Table of Evolutionary Theory,<ref>{{harvnbcite web|Eldredgetitle = Effects of Acid Rain|1995publisher = US Environmental Protection Agency|paccessdate =3314 March 2015|url = http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects/materials.html}}</ref>}}calcium carbonate (in limestone form) is no longer used for building purposes on its own, but only as a raw/primary substance for building materials.

===Changes Calcium carbonate is also used in habitat ===Before Darwin, adaptation was seen as a fixed relationship between an organism and its habitat. It was not appreciated that as the purification of [[climateiron]] changed, so did the habitat; and as the habitat changed, so did the from [[Biota (ecology)|biotairon ore]]. Also, habitats are subject to changes in their biota: for example, a [[Invasive species|invasionsblast furnace]] of species from other areas. The relative numbers of species carbonate is calcined ''in a given habitat are always changing. Change is the rule, though much depends on the speed and degree of the change.When the habitat changes, three main things may happen situ'' to a resident population: habitat trackinggive calcium oxide, genetic change or extinction. In fact, all three things may occur in sequence. Of these three effects only genetic change brings about adaptation.When which forms a habitat changesslag with various impurities present, and separates from the resident population typically moves to more suitable places; this is the typical response of flying [[insect]]s or oceanic organisms, which have wide (though not unlimited) opportunity for movementpurified iron.<ref>{{harvnbcite web|title = Blast Furnace|Eldredgepublisher = Science Aid|1985accessdate = 30 December 2007|purl =136http: "Of glaciers and beetles"}}</ref> This common response is called ''habitat tracking''/www.scienceaid.co. It is one explanation put forward for the periods of apparent stasis in the [[Fossil#Fossil record|fossil record]] (the [[punctuated equilibrium]] theory)uk/chemistry/industrial/blastfurnace.<ref>{{harvnb|Eldredge|1995|p=64html}}</ref>

=== Genetic change ===Genetic change occurs in a population when natural selection and In the [[mutationoil industry]]s act on its , calcium carbonate is added to [[genetic variabilitydrilling fluid]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hogan |first=C. Michael |editors as a formation-last=Monosson |editorbridging and filtercake-first=Emily |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia sealing agent; it is also a weighting material which increases the density of Earth]] |title=Mutation |url=http://wwwdrilling fluids to control the downhole pressure.eoearth.org/view/article/159530/ |accessdate=2015-08-18 |date=October 12, 2010 |publisher=Environmental Information CoalitionCalcium carbonate is added to swimming pools, as a [[National Council for Science and the EnvironmentpH]] |oclc=72808636}}</ref> The first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism may have been parts of corrector for maintaining [[Purine metabolism|purine nucleotide metabolismalkalinity]], with previous metabolic pathways being part and offsetting the acidic properties of the ancient [[RNA world]]disinfectant agent. By this means, the population adapts genetically to its circumstances.<ref name{{citation needed|date="Orr_2005" /> Genetic changes may result in visible structures, or may adjust physiological activity in a way that suits the habitat.June 2015}}

Habitats and biota do frequently change. Therefore, it follows that the process of adaptation It is never finally complete.<ref>{{harvnb|Mayr|1982|pp=481–483}}: This sequence tells how Darwin's ideas on adaptation developed as he came to appreciate it also used as "a continuing dynamic process."</ref> Over time, it may happen that the environment changes little, and the species comes to fit its surroundings better and better. On the other hand, it may happen that changes raw material in the environment occur relatively rapidly, and then the species becomes less and less well adapted. Seen like this, adaptation is a genetic ''tracking process'', which goes on all the time to some extent, but especially when the population cannot or does not move to another, less hostile area. Given enough genetic change, as well as specific demographic conditions, an adaptation may be enough to bring a population back refining of sugar from the brink of [[extinctionsugar beet]] ; It is calcined in a process called [[evolutionary rescue]]kiln with anthracite to produce calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. It should be noted that adaptation does affect, This burnt lime is then slaked in sweet water to some extent, every species produce a calcium hydroxide suspension for the precipitation of impurities in a particular raw juice during [[ecosystemcarbonatation]].<ref>{{harvnbcite book|Sterelnylast1=McGinnis|Griffithsfirst1=R.A.|1999title=Beet-Sugar Technology|ppublisher=217}}</ref><ref>{{harvnbBeet Sugar Development Foundation|Freeman|Herron|2007page=178|pedition=3642nd}}</ref>

Calcium carbonate has traditionally been a major component of blackboard chalk. However, modern manufactured chalk is mostly [[Leigh Van Valengypsum]] thought that even in a stable environment, competing species constantly had to adapt to maintain their relative standinghydrated [[calcium sulfate]] CaSO₄·2H₂O. This became known as the Calcium carbonate is a main source for growing [[Red Queen hypothesisSeacrete]], as seen in host-or [[parasiteBiorock]] interaction. Precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC), pre-dispersed in slurry form, is a common filler material for latex gloves with the aim of achieving maximum saving in material and production costs.<refname=precaco3>{{cite journal web|title=Precipitated Calcium Carbonate uses |doiurl=10http://www.1126aristocratholding.com/sciadvcalris-5.1501548 |last=Rabajante |first=J |title=Host-parasite Red Queen dynamics with phase-locked rare genotypes|journal=[[Science Advances]] |year=2016 html |volumedeadurl=2yes |pages=e1501548 |urlarchiveurl=httphttps://advancesweb.sciencemagarchive.org/contentweb/20140725032803/http:/2/3www.aristocratholding.com/e1501548 |displaycalris-authors=etal5.html |bibcodearchivedate=2016SciA....2E1548R25 July 2014 }}</ref>

=== CoFine ground calcium carbonate (GCC) is an essential ingredient in the microporous film used in [[diapers]] and some building films as the pores are nucleated around the calcium carbonate particles during the manufacture of the film by biaxial stretching. GCC or PCC is used as a filler in paper because they are cheaper than wood fiber. In terms of market volume, GCC are the most important types of fillers currently used.<ref>[http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/additives/fillers/ Market Study Fillers, 2nd ed., published by Ceresana, September 2011]</ref> Printing and writing paper can contain 10–20% calcium carbonate. In North America, calcium carbonate has begun to replace [[Kaolinite|kaolin]] in the production of glossy paper. Europe has been practicing this as alkaline [[papermaking]] or acid-adaptation ===free papermaking for some decades. PCC used for paper filling and paper coatings is precipitated and prepared in a variety of shapes and sizes having characteristic narrow particle size distributions and equivalent spherical diameters of 0.4 to 3 micrometres.{{maincitation needed|Co-adaptationdate=June 2015}}

[[FileCalcium carbonate is widely used as an extender in paints,<ref name = reade>{{cite web|title = Calcium Carbonate Powder|publisher = Reade Advanced Materials |date=4 February 2006|accessdate = 30 December 2007|url = http:Plumpollen0060//www.reade.jpg|thumb|Pollinating insects are co-adapted with flowering plantscom/Products/Minerals_and_Ores/calcium_carbonate.]]In [[coevolution]], html}}</ref> in particular matte emulsion paint where typically 30% by weight of the existence of one species paint is tightly bound up with the life of another species, new either chalk or 'improved' adaptations which occur marble. It is also a popular filler in one species are often followed by the appearance and spread plastics.<ref name = reade/> Some typical examples include around 15 to 20% loading of corresponding features chalk in the other species. These [[co-adaptationPolyvinyl chloride|unplasticized polyvinyl chloride]]al relationships are intrinsically dynamic(uPVC) drain pipe, and may continue on a trajectory for millions 5 to 15% loading of years, as has occurred stearate coated chalk or marble in the relationship between uPVC window profile. [[flowering plantPolyvinyl chloride|PVC]]s cables can use calcium carbonate at loadings of up to 70 phr (parts per hundred parts of resin) to improve mechanical properties (tensile strength and elongation) and electrical properties (volume resistivity).{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} [[pollination|pollinatingPolypropylene]] insectscompounds are often filled with calcium carbonate to increase rigidity, a requirement that becomes important at high use temperatures.<refname= Imerys>{{cite book web|titleurl=Coevolution |author=[[Douglas Jhttp://www. Futuyma|Futuyma, Dimerys-perfmins. J.]] and Mcom/calcium-carbonate/eu/calcium-carbonate-plastic. Slatkin (editors) htm |yeartitle=1983 |publisher=[[Sinauer Associates]] Calcium carbonate in plastic applications |isbnaccessdate=0-87893-228-3 1 August 2008 |pagespublisher=whole bookImerys Performance Minerals}}</ref>Here the percentage is often 20–40%. It also routinely used as a filler in [[Thermosetting plastic|thermosetting resins]] (sheet and bulk molding compounds)<refname = Imerys/>and has also been mixed with [[acrylonitrile butadiene styrene|ABS]], and other ingredients, to form some types of compression molded "clay" poker chips.{{cite book citation needed|titledate=The Coevolutionary Process |author=ThompsonJune 2015}} Precipitated calcium carbonate, made by dropping [[calcium oxide]] into water, is used by itself or with additives as a white paint, J. Nknown as [[whitewashing]].{{citation needed|yeardate=1994 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-79759-7 |pages=whole bookJune 2015}}</ref>

=== Mimicry ==={{main|Mimicry}}[[File:Wasp mimicry.jpg|thumb|right|A Calcium carbonate is added to a wide range of trade and B show real [[waspsdo it yourself]]; the rest are adhesives, sealants, and decorating fillers.<ref name = reade/> Ceramic tile adhesives typically contain 70 to 80% limestone. Decorating crack fillers contain similar levels of marble or dolomite. It is also mixed with putty in setting [[Batesian mimicry|Batesian mimics]]: three [[Hoverfly|hoverfliesstained glass]] windows, and as a resist to prevent glass from sticking to kiln shelves when firing glazes and one [[beetle]]paints at high temperature.]]{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

BatesIn [[ceramics (art)|ceramics]]/glazing applications, calcium carbonate is known as ' work on Amazonian 'whiting'',<ref name = reade/> and is a common ingredient for many glazes in its white powdered form. When a glaze containing this material is fired in a kiln, the whiting acts as a [[ButterflyCeramic flux|butterfliesflux]] led him to develop material in the first scientific account of glaze. Ground calcium carbonate is an [[mimicryabrasive]](both as scouring powder and as an ingredient of household scouring creams), especially in particular in its calcite form, which has the kind relatively low hardness level of mimicry which bears his name: 3 on the [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness]], and will therefore not scratch [[glass]] and most other [[Batesian mimicryceramic]].<ref>{{harvnbs, [[Vitreous enamel|Carpenter|Ford|1933}}</ref> This is the mimicry by a palatable species of an unpalatable or noxious speciesenamel]], [[bronze]], gaining a selective advantage. A common example seen in temperate gardens is the [[hoverflyiron]], many of which—though bearing no sting—mimic the warning coloration of and [[hymenopterasteel]] (, and have a moderate effect on softer metals like [[waspaluminium]]s and [[beecopper]]s). Such mimicry does not need to A paste made from calcium carbonate and [[deionized water]] can be perfect used to improve the survival of the palatable speciesclean [[tarnish]] on [[silver]].<refname="Make it Shine">{{harvnbcite web|title = Ohio Historical Society Blog: Make It Shine|Wicklerpublisher = Ohio Historical Society |1968url = http://ohiohistory.wordpress.com/2011/06/02/making-it-shine/}}</ref>

Bates, Wallace ===Health and dietary applications===[[Fritz MüllerFile:500 mg calcium supplements with vitamin D.jpg|thumb|500-milligram calcium supplements made from calcium carbonate]] believed that Batesian and [Calcium carbonate is widely used medicinally as an inexpensive dietary calcium supplement for [Müllerian mimicry]] provided [[coloration evidence for natural selectionantacid|evidence for the action of natural selectiongastric antacid]], a view which is now standard amongst biologists.<ref>{{harvnb|Moon|1976}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ruxton|Sherratt|Speed|2004}}</ref><refname = medline>{{cite journal web|lastwork =Mallet Medline Plus|firstpublisher =James [[National Institutes of Health]]|authorlinktitle =James Mallet Calcium Carbonate |date=November 2001 1 October 2005|titleaccessdate =The speciation revolution 30 December 2007|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/medmaster/a601032.html |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071017031324/http://www.uclnlm.acnih.ukgov/taxomemedlineplus/jimdruginfo/papmedmaster/malletjeb01a601032.pdf html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |journalarchivedate =17 October 2007}}</ref> (e.g., [[Tums]]). It may be used as a [[Journal phosphate binder]] for the treatment of Evolutionary Biology[[hyperphosphatemia]] (primarily in patients with [[chronic renal failure]]). It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry as an inert [[Excipient|volumefiller]] for [[Tablet (pharmacy)|tablets]] and other [[pharmaceuticals]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=14 Lieberman, Herbert A. |issueauthor2=6 Lachman, Leon |pagesauthor3=887–888 Schwartz, Joseph B. |doititle = Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms: Tablets|year = 1990|isbn =10.1046/j.14200-8247-8044-9101.2001.00342.x2|page=153|publisher = Dekker|location = New York}}</ref>

=== Trade-offs ==={{Quotation|''It Calcium carbonate is used in the production of calcium oxide as well as toothpaste and has seen a profound truth that Nature does not know best; that genetical evolutionresurgence as a food preservative and color retainer, when used in or with products such as organic apples.<ref>[http://chemistry.about. is com/od/foodcookingchemistry/a story of waste, makeshift, compromise and blunder/cadditives.''|[[Peter Medawarhtm Food Additives – Names Starting with C]]|The Future of Man<ref>{{harvnb|Medawar|1960}}. Chemistry.about.com (10 April 2012). Retrieved 2012-05-24.</ref>}}

All adaptations have a downside: Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause [[horsemilk-alkali syndrome]] legs are great , which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the "Sippy regimen" of hourly ingestion of milk and cream, and the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal, for 10 days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for running on grasspeptic ulcer disease. Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in [[renal failure]], [[alkalosis]], but they can't scratch their backs; and [[mammalhypercalcaemia]]s' hair helps temperature, mostly in men with peptic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the regimen stopped, but offers a niche it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk-alkali syndrome declined in men after effective treatments for [[Parasitism#Types|ectoparasitespeptic ulcer]]disease arose. During the past 15 years, it has been reported in women taking calcium supplements above the recommended range of 1.2 to 1.5&nbsp; the only flying g daily, for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis, and is exacerbated by [[penguindehydration]]s do is under water. Adaptations serving different functions may be mutually destructiveCalcium has been added to over-the-counter products, which contributes to inadvertent excessive intake. Compromise and makeshift occur widelyExcessive calcium intake can lead to [[hypercalcemia]], not perfection. Selection pressures pull in different directionscomplications of which include vomiting, abdominal pain and the adaptation that results is some kind of compromisealtered mental status.<ref>{{cite journal |lasttitle=Jacob Clinical problem-solving, back to basics|firstauthor=François Gabriely, Ilan |authorlinkjournal=François Jacob New England Journal of Medicine|dateyear=June 10, 1977 2008|titlevolume=Evolution and Tinkering 358|journalpmid=[[Science (journal)18450607|Science]] |publisherdoi=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |volume=196 10.1056/NEJMcps0706188|issue=4295 18|pageslast2=1161–1166 Leu|doifirst2=10.1126/scienceJames P.860134 |pmidlast3=860134Barzel|bibcodefirst3=1977SciUriel S...196.1161J |pages=1952–6}}</ref>

As a [[food additive]] it is designated E170,<ref>{{Quotationcite web|title=Food-Info.net : E-numbers : E170 Calcium carbonate|''Since the phenotype url=http://www.food-info.net/uk/e/e170.htm}} 080419 food-info.net</ref> and it has an INS number of 170. Used as a whole is the target of selectionan acidity regulator, anticaking agent, stabiliser or colour it is impossible to improve simultaneously all aspects of approved for usage in the phenotype to the same degreeEU,<ref>UK Food Standards Agency: {{cite web |url=http://www.food.gov.''uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/enumberlist |title=Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers |accessdate=27 October 2011}}</ref> USA<ref>US [[Ernst MayrFood and Drug Administration]]: {{cite web|[[The Growth url=http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodIngredientsPackaging/FoodAdditives/FoodAdditiveListings/ucm091048.htm |title=Listing of Biological ThoughtFood Additives Status Part I |The Growth of Biological Thoughtaccessdate=27 October 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314104055/http: Diversity, Evolution, //www.fda.gov/Food/FoodIngredientsPackaging/FoodAdditives/FoodAdditiveListings/ucm091048.htm |archivedate=14 March 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref> and [[Australia]] and Inheritance[[New Zealand]].<ref>Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code{{harvnbcite web |Mayrurl=http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2011C00827 |1982title=Standard 1.2.4 – Labelling of ingredients |paccessdate=58927 October 2011}}</ref>It is used in some [[soy milk]] and [[almond milk]] products as a source of dietary calcium; one study suggests that calcium carbonate might be as [[bioavailable]] as the calcium in cow's milk.<ref>{{Cite journal| pmid = 16177199| year = 2005| author1 = Zhao| first1 = Y| title = Calcium bioavailability of calcium carbonate fortified soymilk is equivalent to cow's milk in young women| journal = The Journal of Nutrition| volume = 135| issue = 10| pages = 2379–82| last2 = Martin| first2 = B. R.| last3 = Weaver| first3 = C. M.}}</ref> Calcium carbonate is also used as a [[firming agent]] in many canned or bottled vegetable products.

Consider the antlers of the [[Irish elk]], (often supposed to be far too large; in [[deer]] antler size has an [[Allometry|allometric]] relationship to body size). Obviously, antlers serve positively for defence against [[Predation|predator]]s, and to score victories in the annual [[rut (mammalian reproduction)|rut]]. But they are costly in terms of resource. Their size during the [[last glacial period]] presumably depended on the relative gain and loss of reproductive capacity in the population of elks during that time.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gould |first=Stephen Jay |authorlink=Stephen Jay Gould |dateAgricultural use=June 1974 |title =The Origin and Function of 'Bizarre' Structures: Antler Size and Skull Size in the 'Irish Elk,' ''Megaloceros giganteus'' |journal=Evolution |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=191–220 |doi=10.2307/2407322 |jstor=2407322}}</ref> As another example, [[camouflageAgricultural lime]] to avoid detection , powdered chalk or limestone, is destroyed when vivid [[animal coloration|coloration]] is displayed at mating time. Here the risk to life is counterbalanced by the necessity used as a cheap method for neutralising acidic soil, making it suitable for reproductionplanting.<ref name="Garcia2013Oates2008">{{cite journal | last=Garcia book| first=J. EA. | last2=Rohr | first2=DH. | last3last=Dyer | first3=A. G. Oates| title=Trade-off between camouflage Lime and sexual dimorphism revealed by UV digital imagingLimestone: the case of Australian Mallee dragons (Ctenophorus fordi) Chemistry and Technology, Production and Uses| journalurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=Journal of Experimental Biology | volumeMVoEMNI5Vb0C&pg=216 PA111| issuedate=22 11 July 2008| datepublisher=2013 John Wiley & Sons| doiisbn=10.1242/jeb.094045 978-3-527-61201-7| pages=4290–4298111–3}}</ref>

Stream-dwelling salamanders, such as ===Household use===Calcium carbonate is a key ingredient in many household cleaning powders like [[Caucasian salamanderComet (cleanser)]] or [[Gold-striped salamander]] have very slender, long bodies, perfectly adapted to life at the banks of fast small rivers and mountain [[Stream|brook]]s. Elongated body protects their [[larva]]e from being washed out by current. However, elongated body increases risk of desiccation and decreases dispersal ability of the salamanders; it also negatively affects their [[fecundity]]. As a result, [[fire salamander]], less perfectly adapted to the mountain brook habitats, is in general more successful, have used as a higher fecundity and broader geographic range.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tarkhnishvili |first=David Nscrubbing agent. |year=1994 |title=Interdependences between Populational, Developmental and Morphological Features of the Caucasian salamander, ''Mertensiella caucasica'' |url=http://eprints.iliauni.edu.ge/usr/share/eprints3/data/814/1/Caucasian%20Salamander%20Ecological%20Constraints.pdf |journal=Mertensiella |volume=4 |pages=315–325 |accessdate=2015-08-18}}</ref>

The In 1989, a researcher, Ken Simmons, introduced CaCO₃ into the Whetstone Brook in [[PeafowlMassachusetts]].<ref>{{cite news|peacockagency = [[Associated Press]]'s ornamental train (grown anew |title = Limestone Dispenser Fights Acid Rain in Stream |date=13 June 1989|url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DEFD9173FF930A25755C0A96F948260|work = The New York Times}}</ref> His hope was that the calcium carbonate would counter the acid in time for each mating season) is a famous adaptationthe stream from acid rain and save the trout that had ceased to spawn. It must reduce Although his maneuverability and flightexperiment was a success, and is hugely conspicuous; also, its growth costs food resourcesit did increase the amount of aluminium ions in the area of the brook that was not treated with the limestone. Darwin's explanation This shows that CaCO₃ can be added to neutralize the effects of its advantage was acid rain in terms of [[sexual selectionriver]]: "This depends on the advantage which certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex ecosystems. Currently calcium carbonate is used to neutralize acidic conditions in both soil and species, in exclusive relation to reproductionwater."<refname=env>{{harvnbcite web|Darwintitle=Environmental Uses for Calcium Carbonate|1871|purl=[http://darwin-onlinewww.orgcongcal.ukcom/contentmarkets/frameset?pageseqenvironmental/|publisher=269&itemIDCongcal|accessdate=F937.1&viewtype=side 256]5 August 2013}}</ref> The kind of sexual selection represented <ref>{{cite journal|author = Schreiber, R. K. |title = Cooperative federal-state liming research on surface waters impacted by the peacock is called 'mate choiceacidic deposition|year = 1988|journal =Water,' with an implication that the process selects the more fit over the less fitAir, and so has survival value& Soil Pollution|volume = 41|issue = 1|pages = 53–73|doi=10.1007/BF00160344|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00160344|doi-broken-date = 2017-01-31}}</ref><ref>The case was treated by {{harvnbcite web|Fishertitle = Effects of low pH and high aluminum on Atlantic salmon smolts in Eastern Maine and liming project feasibility analysis|1930year = 2006|ppauthor1=134–139Kircheis, Dan |author2=Dill, Richard |publisher = National Marine Fisheries Service and Maine Atlantic Salmon Commission|url = http://www.mainesalmonrivers.org/pages/Liming%20Project%20Rpt.pdf|format = reprinted at Downeast Salmon Federation}}</ref> The recognition of sexual selection was for a long time in abeyanceSince the 1970s, but such ''liming'' has been rehabilitatedpracticed on a large scale in Sweden to mitigate acidification and several thousand lakes and streams are limed repeatedly.<ref>{{harvnbCite journal |doi= 10.1007/s10933-006-9014-9 |title= Liming placed in a long-term perspective: A paleolimnological study of 12 lakes in the Swedish liming program |journal= Journal of Paleolimnology |volume= 37 |Croninissue= 2 |1991pages= 247–258 |year= 2006 |last1= Guhrén |first1= M. |last2= Bigler |first2= C. |last3= Renberg |first3= I. |bibcode= 2007JPall..37..247G }}</ref>

The conflict between the size of the human Calcium carbonate is also used in [[Fetus|foetalflue gas desulfurisation]] brain at birth, (which cannot be larger than about 400&nbsp;cmapplications eliminating harmful SO<supsub>32</supsub>, else it will not get through the mother's [[pelvis]]) and the size needed for an adult brain (about 1400&nbsp;cmNO<supsub>32</supsub>), means the brain of a newborn child is quite immature. The most vital things emissions from coal and other fossil fuels burnt in human life (locomotion, speech) just have to wait while the brain grows and matures. That is the result of the birth compromise. Much of the problem comes from our upright [[Bipedalism|bipedal]] stance, without which our pelvis could be shaped more suitably for birth. [[Neanderthal]]s had a similar problemlarge fossil fuel power stations.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rosenberg |firstname=Karen R. |year=1992 |title=The evolution of modern human childbirth |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=John Wiley & Sons for the [[American Association of Physical Anthropologists]] |volume=35 |issue=Supplement S15 |pages=89–124 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330350605}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedlander |first1=Nancy J. |last2=Jordan |first2=David K. |authorlink2=David K. Jordan |date=October–December 1994 |title=Obstetric implications of Neanderthal robusticity and bone density |journal=Human Evolution |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=331–342 |doi=10.1007env/BF02435519}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Miller|2007}}</ref>

As another example, the long neck ==Calcination equilibrium==[[Calcination]] of a [[giraffelimestone]] using [[charcoal]] fires to produce [[calcium oxide|quicklime]] has been practiced since antiquity by cultures all over the world. The temperature at which limestone yields calcium oxide is a burden and a blessingusually given as 825&nbsp;°C, but stating an absolute threshold is misleading. The neck of a giraffe can be up to {{convert|2|m|abbr=on}} Calcium carbonate exists in length.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|2010|p=29}}</ref> This neck can be used for inter-species competition or for foraging on tall trees where shorter equilibrium with calcium oxide and [[herbivorecarbon dioxide]]s cannot reachat any temperature. However, as previously stated, At each temperature there is always a trade-off[[partial pressure]] of carbon dioxide that is in equilibrium with calcium carbonate. This long neck is heavy and it adds to At room temperature the body mass of a giraffeequilibrium overwhelmingly favors calcium carbonate, so because the giraffe needs an abundance of nutrition to provide for this costly adaptation.equilibrium CO<sub>2<ref/sub>{{cite journal |last1=Altwegg |first1=Robert E. |last2=Simmons |first2=Res |title=Necks-for-sex or competing browsers? A critique pressure is only a tiny fraction of ideas on the evolution of giraffe |date=September 2010 |journal=[[Journal of Zoology]] |volume=282 |issue=1 |pages=6–12 |doi=10.1111partial CO<sub>2</j.1469-7998sub> pressure in air, which is about 0.2010035 kPa.00711.x}}</ref>

==Shifts At temperatures above 550&nbsp;°C the equilibrium CO₂ pressure begins to exceed the CO₂ pressure in air. So above 550&nbsp;°C, calcium carbonate begins to outgas CO₂ into air. However, in a charcoal fired kiln, the concentration of CO₂ will be much higher than it is in air. Indeed, if all the [[oxygen]] in the kiln is consumed in function =={{Quotation|''Adaptation and function are two aspects the fire, then the partial pressure of one problemCO₂ in the kiln can be as high as 20 kPa.''|Julian Huxley|Evolution: The Modern Synthesis<refname="solvaypcc2007">{{harvnbcite web|title = Solvay Precipitated Calcium Carbonate: Production|publisher = Solvay S. A. |Huxleydate=9 March 2007|1942accessdate = 30 December 2007|purl =417http://www.solvaypcc.com/safety_environment/0,0,1000044-_EN,00.html}}</ref>}}

Pre-adaptation occurs when a population has characteristics which by chance are suited for a set of conditions not previously experienced. For example, the polyploid [[Spartina|cordgrass]] ''Spartina townsendii'' is better adapted than either of its parent species to their own habitat of saline marsh and mud-flats.<ref>{{cite journal |lastclass=Huskins "wikitable"|first=C. Leonard + {{chembox header}} |authorlink=Charles Leonard Huskins |year=1930 |title=The origin Equilibrium pressure of Spartina Townsendii |journal=[[Genetica]] |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague/Kluwer Academic Publishers |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=531–538 |doi=10.1007/BF01487665}}CO<sub>2</refsub> Among domestic animals, the [[Leghorn chicken|White Leghorn]] [[chicken]] is markedly more resistant to [[Thiamine|vitamin Bover CaCO₁₃]] deficiency than other breeds; on a plentiful diet this makes no difference, but on a restricted diet this preadaptation could be decisive(P) vs. temperature (T).<refname=crc>{{cite journal RubberBible86th}}</ref>|-|'''P (kPa)'''||0.055|last1=Lamoreux |first1=Wilfred F0. 13|last2=Hutt |first2=Frederick B0. 31|date=February 15, 1939 |title=Breed differences in resistance to a deficiency in vitamin B₁ in the fowl .80||url=http://naldc5.nal9||9.usda.gov/download/IND43969284/PDF 3||14||24||34||51||72 ||80||91||101||179||901||3961|-|'''T (°C)'''||550||587||605||680||727||748||777||800||830||852||871||881||891||898||937|journal=Journal of Agricultural Research |publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] 1082|volume=58 |issue=4 1241|pages=307–316}}</ref>

Pre-adaptation may arise because a natural population carries a huge quantity of genetic variability.<ref name="Dobzhansky T 1981">{{harvnb|Dobzhansky|1981}}</ref> In [[Ploidy#Diploid|diploid]] [[eukaryote]]s, this is a consequence of the system of [[sexual reproduction]], where mutant alleles get partially shielded, for example, by [[dominance (genetics)|genetic dominance]].<ref>{{cite book |first=R. C. |lastSolubility=King |date=2006 |title=A Dictionary of Genetics |edition=7th|page=129 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-530761-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykp-7oJ5pREC&pg=PA129#v=onepage&f=false|quote=Dominance [refers] to alleles that fully manifest their phenotype when present in the [[zygosity|heterozygous]] ... state. |display-authors=etal}}</ref> [[Microorganism]]s, with their huge populations, also carry a great deal of genetic variability. The first experimental evidence of the pre-adaptive nature of genetic variants in microorganisms was provided by [[Salvador Luria]] and [[Max Delbrück]] who developed the [[Luria–Delbrück experiment|Fluctuation Test]], a method to show the random fluctuation of pre-existing genetic changes that conferred resistance to [[bacteriophage]]s in ''[[Escherichia coli]]''.<ref name="Luria 1943 491–511">{{cite journal |last=Luria |first=S. E. |author2=Delbrück, M. |year=1943 |title=Mutations of Bacteria from Virus Sensitivity to Virus Resistance |journal=[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]] |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=491–511 |url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint/28/6/491}}</ref>

===Co-option of existing traits: exaptation With varying CO₂ pressure===[[File:SinosauropteryxfossilCanarySpring.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2right|The feathers of ''[[SinosauropteryxTravertine]]'', calcium carbonate deposits from a dinosaur with feathers, were used for insulation, making them an [[exaptationhot spring]] for flight.]]{{main|Exaptation}}Calcium carbonate is poorly soluble in pure water (47&nbsp;mg/L at normal atmospheric CO₂ partial pressure as shown below).

Features that now appear as adaptations sometimes arose by co-option The equilibrium of existing traits, evolved for some other purpose. The classic example its solution is given by the equation (with dissolved calcium carbonate on the [[Evolution of mammalian auditory ossiclesright)::{|ear ossicles of mammals]], which we know from [[Paleontologywidth="500"|paleontological]] and [[Embryologystyle="width:50%; height:30px;"|embryological]] evidence originated in the upper and lower [[jaw]]s and the [[hyoid bone]] of their [[synapsid]] ancestors, and further back still were part of the [[Branchial arch|gill arch]]es of early fish.CaCO<sub>3<ref/sub>{{harvnb|Allin|Hopson|1992|pp=587–614eqm}}Ca²⁺ + CO<sub>3</refsub><refsup>{{harvnb|Panchen|1992|loc=chpt. 4, "Homology and the evidence for evolution"}}2−</refsup> The word | ''exaptationK'' was coined to cover these common evolutionary shifts in function.<refsub>{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Stephen Jay |author1link=Stephen Jay Gould |last2=Vrba |first2=Elizabeth S. |authorlink2=Elisabeth Vrba |date=Winter 1982 |title=Exaptation–A Missing Term in the Science of Form |journal=[[Paleobiology (journal)|Paleobiology]] |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=4–15 |jstor=2400563}}sp</refsub> The flight [[feather]]s of birds evolved from the much earlier [[Feathered dinosaur#List of non-avian dinosaur species preserved with evidence of feathers|feathers of dinosaur]]s,= 3.7×10<ref name="Ornithoscelida"sup>{{cite journal | last1=Baron | first1=M.G. | last2=Norman | first2=D.B. | last3=Barrett | first3=P.M. | year=2017 | title=A new hypothesis of dinosaur relationships and early dinosaur evolution | journal=Nature | volume=543 | issue=| pages=501–506 | doi=10.1038/nature21700| bibcode=2017Natur.543..501B }}−9</refsup> which might have been used for insulation or for displayto 8.7×10<ref name="Dimond et al"sup>{{Cite journal|author1=Dimond, C. C. |author2=Cabin, R. J. |author3=Brooks, J. S. |journal=BIOS |title=Feathers, Dinosaurs, and Behavioral Cues: Defining the Visual Display Hypothesis for the Adaptive Function of Feathers in Non-Avian Theropods |volume=82|year=2011 |pages=58–63 |doi=10.1893/011.082.0302 |issue=3}}−9</refsup><ref>{{Cite journal at 25&nbsp;°C|author1=Sumida, S. S. |author2=C. A. Brochu |journal=American Zoologist|title=Phylogenetic Context for the Origin of Feathers |volume=40 |issue=4 |year=2000 |pages=485–503 |doi=10.1093/icb/40.4.486}}</ref>

where the [[solubility product]] for [Ca²⁺] [CO₃²⁻] is given as anywhere from ''K''_sp =3.7×10⁻⁹ to ''K''_sp =Non-adaptive traits =8.7×10⁻⁹ at 25&nbsp;°C, depending upon the data source.<ref name =crc/><ref>{{maincite web|title = Selected Solubility Products and Formation Constants at 25 °C|publisher = [[California State University, Dominguez Hills]]|Spandrel url = http://www.csudh.edu/oliver/chemdata/data-ksp.htm}}</ref> What the equation means is that the product of molar concentration of calcium ions ([[mole (biologyunit)|Vestigiality}}moles]] of dissolved Ca²⁺ per liter of solution) with the molar concentration of dissolved CO₃²⁻ cannot exceed the value of ''K''_sp. This seemingly simple solubility equation, however, must be taken along with the more complicated equilibrium of [[carbon dioxide]] with [[water]] (see [[carbonic acid]]). Some of the CO₃²⁻ combines with H⁺ in the solution according to:

Some traits do not appear to be adaptive, that is, they have a neutral or deleterious effect on fitness in the current environment. Because genes have [[Pleiotropy:{| width="500"|pleiotropic]] effects, not all traits may be functionalstyle="width:50%; height: they may be what [[Stephen Jay Gould]] and [[Richard Lewontin]] called [[Spandrel (biology)25px;"|spandrels]], features brought about by neighbouring adaptations, like the triangular areas under neighbouring arches in architecture which began as functionless features.HCO₃⁻ {{eqm}} H⁺ + CO₃<sup>2−<ref name=Wagner2014/sup>[[Günter P. Wagner&nbsp;&nbsp;|Wagner, Günter P.]], ''Homology, Genes, and Evolutionary InnovationK''_a2 = 5. Princeton University Press. 2014. Chapter 1: The Intellectual Challenge of Morphological Evolution: A Case for Variational Structuralism. Page 761×10<sup>−11</refsup>at 25&nbsp;°C|}

Another possibility HCO₃⁻ is that a trait may have been adaptive at some point in an organism's evolutionary history, but a change in habitats caused what used to be an adaptation to become unnecessary or even known as the [[maladaptation|maladaptedbicarbonate]]ion. Such adaptations are termed [[Vestigiality|vestigialCalcium bicarbonate]]. Many organisms have vestigial organs, which are the remnants of fully functional structures is many times more soluble in their ancestors. As a result of changes in lifestyle the organs became redundant, and are either not functional or reduced water than calcium carbonate—indeed it exists ''only'' in functionalitysolution. Since any structure represents some kind of cost to the general economy of the body, an advantage may accrue from their elimination once they are not functional. Examples: [[Wisdom tooth|wisdom teeth]] in humans; the loss of pigment and functional [[eye]]s in cave fauna; the loss of structure in [[Intestinal parasite|endoparasites]].<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|Gautrey|Herbert|Kohn|1987}}. Charles Darwin was the first to put forward such ideas.</ref>

If a population cannot move or change sufficiently to preserve its long-term viability, then obviously, it will become extinct, at least in that locale. The species may or may not survive in other locales. Species extinction occurs when the death rate over the entire species exceeds the birth rate for a long enough period for the species to disappear. It was an observation of Van Valen that groups of species tend to have a characteristic and fairly regular rate of extinction.<ref>:{{cite journal |lastwidth=Van Valen "500"|firststyle=Leigh "width:50%; height:25px;"|authorlink=Leigh Van Valen |date=July 1973 |title=A New Evolutionary Law |url=https:H₂CO<sub>3</dl.dropboxusercontent.comsub> {{eqm}} H<sup>+</usup> + HCO<sub>3</18310184sub><sup>−</evolutionary-theorysup> &nbsp;&nbsp;| ''K''<sub>a1</vol-01/Volsub> = 2.1%2CNo.1%2C1-30%2CL.%20Van%20Valen%2C%20A%20new%20evolutionary%20law..pdf |journal=Evolutionary Theory |volume=1 |pages=1–30}}5×10<sup>−4</refsup>at 25&nbsp;°C|}

Just as there is co-adaptation, there is also coextinction, the loss of a species due to the extinction of another with which it is coadapted, as with the extinction Some of a [[parasitism|parasitic]] insect following the loss of its host, or when a flowering plant loses its pollinator, or when a [[food chain]] is disrupted.H<ref name="Koh"sub>{{cite journal |last1=Koh |first1=Lian Pin |last2=Dunn |first2=Robert R. |authorlink2=Robert Dunn (biologist) |last3=Sodhi |first3=Navjot S. |last4=Colwell |first4=Robert K. |last5=Proctor |first5=Heather C. |last6=Smith |first6=Vincent S. |display-authors=3 |title=Species Coextinctions and the Biodiversity Crisis |date=September 2004 |journal=Science |volume=305 |issue=5690 |pages=1632–1634 |doi=10.1126/science.1101101 |pmid=15361627|bibcode=2004Sci...305.1632K }}2</refsub>CO<refsub>{{harvnb|Darwin|1872|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=84&itemID=F391&viewtype=side 57–58]}}. Darwin in tells the story of "a web of complex relations" involving heartsease (''[[Viola tricolor]]''), red clover (''[[Trifolium pratense]]''), [[bumblebee]]s, mice and cats.3</refsub>breaks up into water and dissolved carbon dioxide according to:

:{| width="500"| style=Philosophical issues=="width:50%; height:25px;"| H₂O + CO₂(dissolved) {{maineqm}} H₂CO₃ &nbsp;&nbsp;|Adaptationism''K''_h = 1.70×10⁻³ at 25&nbsp;°C|Teleology in biology}}

Adaptation raises And dissolved carbon dioxide is in equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide according to: :{| width="500"| style="width:45%;"|<math chem>\frac{P_{\ce{CO2}}}{[\ce{CO2}]}\ =\ k_\ce{H}</math>| where ''k''_H = 29.76 atm/(mol/L) at 25&nbsp;°C ([[Henry's law|Henry constant]]), <math chem>P_{\ce{CO2}}</math> being the CO₂ partial pressure.|} For ambient air, <math chem>P_{\ce{CO2}}</math> is around 3.5×10⁻⁴ atmospheres (or equivalently 35 [[Philosophy of biologyPascal (unit)|philosophical issuesPa]] concerning how biologists speak ). The last equation above fixes the concentration of dissolved CO₂ as a function and purposeof <math chem>P_{\ce{CO2}}</math>, as this carries implications independent of the concentration of evolutionary history – that a feature evolved by natural selection for a specific reason – and potentially dissolved CaCO₃. At atmospheric partial pressure of supernatural intervention – CO₂, dissolved CO₂ concentration is 1.2×10⁻⁵ moles/liter. The equation before that features and organisms exist because fixes the concentration of H₂CO₃ as a deity's conscious intentionsfunction of [CO₂]. For [CO₂]=1.2×10⁻⁵, it results in [H₂CO₃]=2.0×10⁻⁸ moles per liter.When [H<sub>2<ref name/sub>CO₃] is known, the remaining three equations together with{| class="Sober1wikitable floatright">|+ {{harvnbchembox header}} |SoberCalcium ion solubility as a function of [[carbon dioxide|1993CO₂]] [[partial pressure]] at 25&nbsp;°C {{math|pp1=(''K''_sp =85–864.47×10⁻⁹)}}|-!<math chem>\scriptstyle P_\ce{CO2}</refmath> (atm)![[pH]]![Ca²⁺] (mol/L)|-| 10⁻¹² ||12.0||5.19 × 10⁻³|-| 10⁻¹⁰ ||11.3||1.12 × 10⁻³|-| 10⁻⁸ ||10.7||2.55 × 10⁻⁴|-| 10⁻⁶ ||9.83||1.20 × 10⁻⁴|-| 10⁻⁴ ||8.62||3.16 × 10⁻⁴|-| 3.5 × 10⁻⁴||8.27||4.70 × 10⁻⁴|-| 10⁻³ ||7.96||6.62 × 10⁻⁴|-| 10⁻² ||7.30||1.42 × 10⁻³|-| 10⁻¹ ||6.63||3.05 × 10⁻³|-| 1 ||5.96||6.58 × 10⁻³|-| 10 ||5.30||1.42 × 10<sup>−2<ref/sup>|} :{{harvnb|Williamswidth="450"|1966style="width:50%; height:25px;"|pp=8–10H₂O {{eqm}}H⁺ + OH<sup>−</refsup> [[Aristotle| ''K''s biology= 10⁻¹⁴ at 25&nbsp;°C|In his biology} (which is true for all aqueous solutions), and the fact that the solution must be electrically neutral, Aristotle :2[Ca²⁺]+ [H⁺] introduced = [HCO₃⁻] + 2[teleologyCO₃²⁻]+ [OH⁻]  make it possible to describe solve simultaneously for the remaining five unknown concentrations (note that the adaptedness above form of organismsthe neutrality equation is valid only if calcium carbonate has been put in contact with pure water or with a neutral pH solution; in the case where the initial water solvent pH is not neutral, but without accepting the supernatural intention built into equation is modified). The table on the right shows the result for [Ca²⁺] and [H⁺] (in the form of pH) as a function of ambient partial pressure of CO₂ (''K''_sp = 4.47×10⁻⁹ has been taken for the calculation).* At atmospheric levels of ambient CO₂ the table indicates the solution will be slightly alkaline with a maximum CaCO₃ solubility of 47&nbsp;mg/L.* As ambient CO₂ partial pressure is reduced below atmospheric levels, the solution becomes more and more alkaline. At extremely low <math chem>P_{\ce{CO2}}</math>, dissolved CO₂, bicarbonate ion, and carbonate ion largely evaporate from the solution, leaving a highly alkaline solution of [[Platocalcium hydroxide]]'s thinking, which Aristotle rejectedis more soluble than CaCO₃.Note that for <refmath chem>P_{\ce{CO2}} = 10^{-12} \mathrm{cite journal atm}</math>, the [Ca²⁺] [OH⁻]² product is still below the solubility product of Ca(OH)₂ (8×10⁻⁶). For still lower CO₂ pressure, Ca(OH)₂ precipitation will occur before CaCO₃ precipitation.* As ambient CO₂ partial pressure increases to levels above atmospheric, pH drops, and much of the carbonate ion is converted to bicarbonate ion, which results in higher solubility of Ca²⁺. The effect of the latter is especially evident in day-to-day life of people who have hard water. Water in aquifers underground can be exposed to levels of CO₂ much higher than atmospheric. As such water percolates through calcium carbonate rock, the CaCO₃ dissolves according to the second trend. When that same water then emerges from the tap, in time it comes into equilibrium with CO₂ levels in the air by outgassing its excess CO₂. The calcium carbonate becomes less soluble as a result and the excess precipitates as lime scale. This same process is responsible for the formation of [[stalactites]] and [[stalagmite]]s in limestone caves. Two hydrated phases of calcium carbonate, [[monohydrocalcite]], CaCO₃·H₂O and [[ikaite]], CaCO₃·6H₂O, may [[precipitate]] from water at ambient conditions and persist as metastable phases. === With varying pH, temperature and salinity: CaCO₃ scaling in swimming pools ===[[File:CaCO3-pH.gif|thumb|lastalt=Nagel Effects of salinity and pH on the maximum calcium ion level before scaling is anticipated at 25 C and 1 mM bicarbonate (e.g. in swimming pools)]][[File:CaCO3-Temp.gif|thumb|firstalt=Ernest Effects of temperature and bicarbonate concentration on the maximum calcium ion level before scaling is anticipated at pH 7 and 5,000 ppm salinity (e.g. in swimming pools)]]In contrast to the open equilibrium scenario above, many swimming pools are managed by addition of [[sodium bicarbonate]] (NaHCO₃) to about 2 mM as a buffer, then control of pH through use of HCl, NaHSO₄, Na₂CO₃, NaOH or chlorine formulations that are acidic or basic. In this situation, dissolved inorganic carbon ([[total inorganic carbon]]) is far from equilibrium with atmospheric CO₂. Progress towards equilibrium through outgassing of CO₂ is slowed by (i) the slow reaction [[Carbonic acid|H₂CO₃]] ⇌ CO₂(aq) + H₂O;<ref>{{Cite journal |authorlinkdoi =Ernest Nagel 10.1021/jp909019u|datepmid =May 1977 20039712|title=Goal-Directed Processes Comprehensive Study of the Hydration and Dehydration Reactions of Carbon Dioxide in Biology Aqueous Solution|journal=[[The Journal of Philosophy]] Physical Chemistry A|volume=74 114|issue=5 4|pages=261–279 1734–40| year = 2010| last1 = Wang | first1 = X. | last2 = Conway |doifirst2 = W. | last3 = Burns | first3 = R. | last4 = McCann | first4 = N. | last5 = Maeder | first5 =10M.2307/2025745 |jstorbibcode =20257452010JPCA..114.1734W}} Teleology Revisisted</ref> (ii) limited aeration in a deep water column and (iii) periodic replenishment of bicarbonate to maintain buffer capacity (often estimated through measurement of [[alkalinity|‘total alkalinity’]]). In this situation, the dissociation constants for the much faster reactions H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ + HCO₃^‾ ⇌ 2 H⁺ + CO₃²⁻ allow the prediction of concentrations of each dissolved inorganic carbon species in solution, from the added concentration of HCO₃⁻ (which constitutes more than 90% of [[Bjerrum plot]] species from pH 7 to pH 8 at 25&nbsp;°C in fresh water).<ref name="Mook 2000">Mook, W. (2000) [http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/documents/global_cycle/vol%20I/cht_i_09.pdf "Chemistry of carbonic acid in water"], pp. 143–165 in ''Environmental Isotopes in the Hydrological Cycle: Principles and Applications''. INEA/UNESCO: Paris.</ref> Addition of HCO₃⁻ will increase CO₃²⁻ concentration at any pH. Rearranging the equations given above, we can see that [Ca²⁺] = Ksp / [CO₃²⁻], and [CO₃²⁻] = K_a2 × [HCO₃⁻] / [H⁺]. Therefore, when HCO₃⁻ concentration is known, the maximum concentration of Ca²⁺ ions before scaling through CaCO₃ precipitation can be predicted from the formula: :Ca²⁺_max = (K_sp / K_a2) × ([H⁺] / [HCO₃⁻]) The Dewy Lectures 1977 solubility product for CaCO₃ (first lectureK_sp)and the dissociation constants for the dissolved inorganic carbon species (including K_a2) are all substantially affected by temperature and [[salinity]],<refname="Mook 2000" /> with the overall effect that Ca²⁺_max increases from fresh to salt water, and decreases with rising temperature, pH, or added bicarbonate level, as illustrated in the accompanying graphs. The trends are illustrative for pool management, but whether scaling occurs also depends on other factors including interactions with Mg²⁺, B(OH)₄⁻and other ions in the pool, as well as supersaturation effects.<ref>{{cite journal |lastauthor=Nagel Wojtowicz, J. A. |first=Ernest |dateyear=May 1977 1998|title=Functional Explanations in Biology Factors affecting precipitation of calcium carbonate|journal=The Journal of Philosophy the Swimming Pool and Spa Industry |volume=74 3 |issue=5 1|pages=280–301 18–23|doiurl=10http://jspsi.poolhelp.2307com/ARTICLES/2025746 |jstor=2025746JSPSI_V3N1_pp18-23.pdf}} Teleology Revisisted: The Dewy Lectures 1977 (second lecture)</ref> Modern biologists continue to face the same difficulty.<ref>{{harvnbcite journal|author=Wojtowicz, J. A. |year=1998|title= Corrections, potential errors, and significance of the saturation index|journal= Journal of the Swimming Pool and Spa Industry |volume=3 |issue=1|Pittendrighpages=37–40|1958url=http://jspsi.poolhelp.com/ARTICLES/JSPSI_V3N1_pp37-40.pdf}}</ref>Scaling is commonly observed in electrolytic chlorine generators, where there is a high pH near the cathode surface and scale deposition further increases temperature. This is one reason that some pool operators prefer borate over bicarbonate as the primary pH buffer, and avoid the use of pool chemicals containing calcium.<ref>{{harvnbBirch, R. G. (2013) [http://members.iinet.net.au/~jorobbirch/BABES.pdf BABES: a better method than "BBB" for pools with a salt-water chlorine generator.] iinet.net.au</ref> ===Solubility in a strong or weak acid solution===Solutions of [[strong acid|strong]] ([[hydrochloric acid|HCl]]), moderately strong ([[sulfamic acid|sulfamic]]) or [[weak acid|weak]] ([[acetic acid|acetic]], [[citric acid|citric]], [[sorbic acid|Mayrsorbic]], [[lactic acid|1965lactic]], [[phosphoric acid|ppphosphoric]]) acids are commercially available. They are commonly used as [[descaling agent]]s to remove [[limescale]] deposits. The maximum amount of CaCO₃ that can be "dissolved" by one liter of an acid solution can be calculated using the above equilibrium equations.* In the case of a strong monoacid with decreasing acid concentration [A] =33–50}}[A<sup>−</refsup>], we obtain (with CaCO<sub>3<ref/sub>molar mass = 100 g): {{harvnb|Mayrborder="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" style="margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: white; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;" class="wikitable"|1988|loc-! width=chpt. 3, "The Multiple Meanings of Teleological160"{{chembox header}}|[A] (mol/L)| 1| 10⁻¹| 10⁻²| 10⁻³| 10⁻⁴| 10⁻⁵| 10⁻⁶| 10<sup>−7</refsup>| 10<sup>−10<ref/sup>|-! width="160" {{harvnbchembox header}} |Initial pH| 0.00||1.00||2.00||3.00||4.00||5.00||6.00||6.79|Williams|19667.00|loc-! width="The Scientific Study of Adaptation160" {{chembox header}} |Final pH| 6.75||7.25||7.75||8.14||8.25||8.26||8.26||8.26||8.27|-! width="160"{{chembox header}}|Dissolved CaCO<sub>3</refsub><refbr />{{harvnb(g/[[liter|L]] of acid)| 50.0||5.00||0.514||0.0849||0.0504||0.0474||0.0471||0.0470||Monod0.0470|1971}} where the initial state is the acid solution with no Ca²⁺ (not taking into account possible CO₂ dissolution) and the final state is the solution with saturated Ca²⁺. For strong acid concentrations, all species have a negligible concentration in the final state with respect to Ca²⁺ and A⁻ so that the neutrality equation reduces approximately to 2[Ca²⁺] = [A<sup>−</refsup>] yielding <refmath>\scriptstyle[\mathrm{Ca}^{2+}] \simeq \frac{[\mathrm{cite encyclopedia |editorA}^-]}{2}</math>. When the concentration decreases, [HCO₃⁻] becomes non-lastnegligible so that the preceding expression is no longer valid. For vanishing acid concentrations, one can recover the final pH and the solubility of CaCO₃ in pure water.* In the case of a weak monoacid (here we take acetic acid with p''K''_A = 4.76) with decreasing total acid concentration [A] =Allaby [A⁻]+[AH], we obtain: {|editorborder="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" style="margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: white; border-collapse: collapse; border-firstcolor: #C0C090;" class=Michael "wikitable"|editor-link! width=Michael Allaby "160" {{chembox header}} |encyclopedia=[A Dictionary of Zoology ] (mol/L)| 1| 10⁻¹| 10⁻²| 10⁻³| 10⁻⁴| 10⁻⁵|title=teleonomy 10⁻⁶|url=https:10⁻⁷| 10^{−10</bookssup>|-! width="160" {{chembox header}} |Initial pH| 2.38||2.88||3.39||3.91||4.google47||5.com/books?id15||6.02||6.79||7.00|-! width=1_UO957htTwC&pg=PA530&lpg=PA530 "160" {{chembox header}} |Final pH| 6.75||7.25||7.75||8.14||8.25||8.26||accessdate=2015-08-24 8.26|edition=Reissued with new cover and corrections |year=2003 8.26|publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford Paperback Reference 8.27|isbn=0-19-860758-X |oclc! width=444678726"160" {{chembox header}}|Dissolved CaCO₃<br /ref> On (g/[[liter|L]] of acid)| 49.5||4.99||0.513||0.0848||0.0504||0.0474||0.0471||0.0470||0.0470|}For the same total acid concentration, the initial pH of the weak acid is less acid than the one handof the strong acid; however, adaptation the maximum amount of CaCO₃ which can be dissolved is obviously purposeful: natural selection chooses what works and eliminates what does notapproximately the same. On This is because in the final state, the pH is larger than the p''K''_A, so that the other handweak acid is almost completely dissociated, biologists want yielding in the end as many H⁺ ions as the strong acid to deny conscious purpose in evolution"dissolve" the calcium carbonate. * The dilemma gave rise to a famous joke by calculation in the evolutionary biologist case of [[J. B. S. Haldane|Haldanephosphoric acid]]: "Teleology (which is the most widely used for domestic applications) is like a mistress to a biologist: he cannot live without her but he's unwilling more complicated since the concentrations of the four dissociation states corresponding to this acid must be seen calculated together with her in public.'" [HCO₃⁻], [CO₃²⁻], [Ca²⁺], [David HullH⁺]and [OH⁻] commented that Haldane's mistress "has become a lawfully wedded wife. Biologists no longer feel obligated The system may be reduced to apologize a seventh degree equation for their use [H⁺] the numerical solution of teleological languagewhich gives {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" style="margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: white; they flaunt it.border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;" class="wikitable"|-! width="160"{{chembox header}} |[A] (mol/L)| 1| 10⁻¹| 10⁻²| 10⁻³| 10⁻⁴| 10⁻⁵| 10⁻⁶| 10<refsup>−7}| 10⁻¹⁰|-! width="160" {{harvnbchembox header}} |Initial pH| 1.08||Hull1.62|1982|2.25||3.05||4.01||5.00||5.97||6.74||7.00|-! width="160" {{chembox header}} |Final pH| 6.71||7.17||7.63||8.06||8.24||8.26||8.26||8.26||8.27|-! width="160" {{chembox header}}|Dissolved CaCO<sub>3</refsub><br />(g/[[liter|L]] of acid)| 62.0||7.39||0.874||0.123||0.0536||0.0477||0.0471||0.0471||0.0470|} where [A] = [H₃PO₄] + [H₂PO₄⁻] + [HPO₄²⁻] + [PO₄³⁻] is the total acid concentration. Thus phosphoric acid is more efficient than a monoacid since at the final almost neutral pH, the second dissociated state concentration [HPO₄²⁻] is not negligible (see [[phosphoric acid#pH and composition of a phosphoric acid aqueous solution|phosphoric acid]]).

{{Div div col|colwidth=30em22em}}* [[Adaptive evolution in the human genomeCuttlebone]]* [[Adaptive memoryCuttlefish]]* [[Adaptive mutationGesso]]* [[Adaptive systemLimescale]]* [[Anti-predator adaptationMarble]]* [[Body reactivity]]* [[Ecological trap]]* [[Evolutionary pressure]]* [[Evolvability]]* [[Intragenomic conflict]]* [[Neutral theory of molecular evolutionOcean acidification]]

{{Reflistreflist|30em}} ==External links==* {{ICSC|1193|11}}* {{PubChemLink|516889}}* [[ATC codes]]: {{ATC|A02|AC01}} and {{ATC|A12|AA04}}* [http://calcium-carbonate.org.uk/calcium-carbonate.asp The British Calcium Carbonate Association – What is calcium carbonate]* [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0090.html CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Calcium Carbonate]

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Evelyn Hutchinson |year=1965 |title=The Ecological Theater and the Evolutionary Play |publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|oclc=250039 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |last=Huxley |first=Julian |authorlink=Julian Huxley |year=1942 |title=[[Evolution: The Modern Synthesis]] |publisher=[[Allen & Unwin]] |oclc=1399386 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |editor1-last=Margulis |editor1-first=Lynn |editor1-link=Lynn Margulis |editor2-last=Fester |editor2-first=René |year=1991 |title=Symbiosis as a Source treatment of Evolutionary Innovation: Speciation hyperkalemia and Morphogenesis |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=0-262-13269-9 |oclc=22597587 |ref=harv}} "Based on a conference held in Bellagio, Italy, June 25–30, 1989"* {{cite book |last=Maynard Smith |first=John |year=1993 |title=The Theory of Evolution |edition=Canto |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-45128-0 |oclc=27676642 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |last1=Mayr |first=Ernst |authorlink=Ernst Mayr |year=1963 |title=Animal Species and Evolution |publisher=[[Harvard University Press|Belknap Press of Harvard University Press]] |isbn=0-674-03750-2 |oclc=899044868 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |authorlink=Ernst Mayr |year=1965 |chapter=Cause and Effect in Biology |editor-last=Lerner |editor-first=Daniel |title=Cause and Effect |series=The Hayden Colloquium on Scientific Method and Concept |publisher=[[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]] |oclc=384895 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |year=1982 |title=[[The Growth of Biological Thought|The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance]] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press|Belknap Press]] |isbn=0-674-36445-7 |oclc=7875904 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |authorlink=Ernst Mayr |year=1988 |title=[[Toward a New Philosophy of Biology|Toward a New Philosophy of Biology: Observations of an Evolutionist]] |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-89665-3 |oclc=17108004 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |last=Medawar |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Medawar |year=1960 |title=The Future of Man |series=The BBC [[Reith Lectures]], 1959 |publisher=Methuen |oclc=1374615 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Geoffrey |authorlink=Geoffrey Miller (psychologist) |year=2007 |chapter=Brain Evolution |editor1-last=Gangestad |editor1-first=Steven W. |editor2-last=Simpson |editor2-first=Jeffry A. |title=The Evolution of Mind: Fundamental Questions and Controversies|publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=978-1-59385-408-9 |oclc=71005838 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |last=Monod |first=Jacques |authorlink=Jacques Monod |year=1971 |title=Chance and Necessity: An Essay on the Natural Philosophy of Modern Biology |others=Translation of ''Le hasard et la nécessité'' by [[Austryn Wainhouse]] |edition=1st American |publisher=[[Alfred A. 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Ledyard, Jr. |authorlink=G. Ledyard Stebbins |year=1950 |title=[[Variation and Evolution in Plants]] |series=Columbia Biological Series |volume=16 |publisher=Columbia University Press |oclc=294016 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |last1=Sterelny |first1=Kim |authorlink1=Kim Sterelny |last2=Griffiths |first2=Paul E. |year=1999 |title=Sex and Death: An Introduction to Philosophy of Biology |series=Science and its Conceptual Foundations |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-77304-3 |oclc=40193587 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |author=Voltaire |authorlink=Voltaire |year=1759 |title=[[Candide|Candide, ou l'Optimisme]]}} {{Internet Archive|id=Candide_887|name=Candide}} * {{cite book |last=Wickler |first=Wolfgang |authorlink=Wolfgang Wickler |year=1968 |title=Mimicry in Plants and Animals |series=World University Library |others=Translated from the German by R. D. Martin |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Education|McGraw-Hill]] |oclc=160314 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Edgar |year=2010 |title=Giraffe |series=Animal (Reaktion Books) |publisher=[[Reaktion Books]] |isbn=978-1-86189-764-0 |oclc=587198932 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=George C. |authorlink=George C. Williams (biologist) |year=1966 |title=[[Adaptation and Natural Selection|Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought]] |series=Princeton Science Library |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-02615-7 |oclc=35230452 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book |last=Wright |first=Sewall |authorlink=Sewall Wright |year=1932 |chapter=The Roles of Mutation, Inbreeding, Crossbreeding and Selection in Evolution |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Donald F. |editor-link=Donald F. Jones |title=Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Genetics |volume=1 |publisher=[[Genetics Society of America]] |oclc=439596433 |ref=harv}}{{Refendhyperphosphatemia}}

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